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THAT the plough is an instrument of the highest antiquity is apparent, both from the oldest writings that we possess and from the existing monuments of Egypt. The oldest forms of the plough of which we have any description in ancient authors, or which are represented on monuments or coins, are very simple: a mere wedge, with a crooked handle to guide it, and a short beam by which it was drawn, form the whole instrument. The light Hindoo plough, now in use in many

parts of India, seems to differ little from the old model.

The different essential parts of a plough have certain names usually given to them The Body of a plough is that part to which all the other parts are attached. The bottom of it is called the Sole or Slade, to the fore part of which is affixed the Point, or Share; the hind part of the sole is called the Heel. The Beam, which advances forward from the body, serves to keep the plough in its proper direction,

and to the end of it are attached the oxen or horses, which are employed to draw it. Fixed in the beam, in a vertical position, before the point of the share, with its point a little forward, is the Coulter, which serves to cut a vertical section in the ground, while the point of the share, expanding into a Fin, separates a slice by a horizontal cut from the subsoil or solid ground under it. The Mould-Board, or Turn-Furrow, is placed obliquely behind the fin, to the right or left, in order to push aside and turn over the slice of earth which the coulter and share have cut off: it thus leaves a regular furrow wherever the plough has passed, which furrow is intended to be filled up by the slice cut off from the land by the side of it, when the plough returns. The Stilts, or handles, of which there may be either one or two, as is thought more convenient, direct the plough by keeping it in the line required and at a regular depth in the ground. The single stilt appears to be the most ancient form.

Wheels are a modern invention in comparison with the other parts. They support the end of the beam, and prevent it from going too deep into the ground or rising out of it while the plough is going

on.

The greatest improvements introduced into modern ploughs are in the shape of the mould-board, or turn-furrow, and the contrivances for regulating the line of draught, so as to make the plough go at an equal depth, and cut off a regular slice of equal breadth, without any great force being applied by the ploughman who holds the stilts.

The following extracts from an interesting little work published by Houlston and Stoneman, entitled the "Ploughman," will afford some useful information to those of our readers who are unacquainted with the various processes in which this valuable implement is employed:

"You will have observed, said Mr. Light100t, an experienced farmer to his pupil Robert, that some fields are ploughed up in a different manner from others, and the lands or ridges formed differently-some being very narrow, others of a considerable breadth, and a difference is also made (between the light soils and the heavy ones) in the shapes of the ridges, the wet soils being thrown up into ridges with

somewhat higher crowns than the drier ones. Robert immediately mentioned the name of a field where the soil was clayey and heavy, where he had noticed the ridges as being higher in the crown or centre than those in the adjoining field, but he had supposed it had proceeded from some whim or mismanagement of the parties that had last ploughed it, rather than from any design or intention. Mr. Lightfoot then went on to inform him, that although some farmers at the present day throw up their wet soils in ridges with very elevated crowns, particularly where it is intended they should continue under grass for several years, the practice was by no means so common as it formerly used to be. But this is not, continued he, the point to which I proposed principally to draw your attention, for I wished to say a few words upon the three most ordinary modes of ploughing, or, it might be said, upon the three heads into which ploughing is commonly divided; which, among agriculturists, are known by the terms casting, cleaving, and gathering. Now the ridges you are here engaged upon are thrown up in three-bout ones, in order that the soil might be more exposed to the action of the weather, than if they had been ploughed in wider lands or ridges. One-bout or two-bout ribs would have answered quite as well or better, but in that case the surface would have required to be levelled before the new seed ridges could have been formed. Now, although you have been ploughing these lands after the manner called cleaving,—for you have cleft the original ridges, and so formed new ones of precisely the same size; you, probably, by collecting two halves into a new ridge, conceived that you were ploughing in the manner known by the term gathering; but even admitting this were the case, you are aware that you never saw corn growing upon my farm upon such narrow ridges as you are making, except in the far spring-field, or the clayey pasture. My intention was to gather two of the original ridges into one, and nothing could have been easier, for by commenc ing in the first furrow from the fence, and ploughing each of the old ridges into that furrow, both ways, a new ridge would then be formed of double the size of the old ones, having its crown exactly

in the place of the furrow into which the soil was turned by the plough in the first bout. There being an old furrow on either side of the new ridge, care should be taken to raise a little new soil in these respective furrows-that is, at the last bout that finishes the new ridge,—a portion of which, when the harrows pass along, will be forced back into the furrows between the newly-formed ridges, which, otherwise, would be wider than necessary. Robert at once saw the plan he ought to have adopted, and, had he taken the time to think, he probably would have got right | without any specific instructions; for although he had gone on for a few ridges, he had felt by no means satisfied that he was doing his work properly, and when Mr. Lightfoot appeared in sight he was glad that an opportunity of being better informed upon the subject was afforded him. There appeared no other means of rectifying the mistake than by re-ploughing the few lands he had already completed; but as he had an odd half-land, where he left off, he did not at once see how it was to be managed. But Mr. Lightfoot pointed out to him the fact of his also having thrown out, towards the fence where he had commenced, another odd half-land; so by beginning again at the outside, and gathering that and half of the next ridge together, and proceeding in this way until he had re-ploughed the few ridges, he would find both the original ridges and furrows exactly in the places they ought to have been, and no odd half ridges in any part of the work. Robert soon comprehended this part of the business, and when he was about to re-commence, his master told him to delay a few minutes, as he wished to say a few words upon the other heads of ploughing.

Although it is the custom among ploughmen in many parts of the country to call the plan that Robert was directed to pursue gathering, and with some appearance of propriety-for two ridges had to be collected and formed into one-yet among agirculturists "gathering" signifies quite a different mode of proceeding; and, as Mr. Lightfoot informed Robert, the mode he had to pursue is called casting, that is, casting two lands into one. But this term is also applied to ploughing ridges in pairs, and keeping

the original crowns, and furrows too, in the situations they previously occupied; but, continued the master, you never see this plan adopted by my men, and it is rarely practised upon arable farms, where the soil is scarcely ever allowed to remain over two years undisturbed. Neither is the plan now much practised, which was anciently called gathering, and which is performed by beginning in the centre of the ridge, and ploughing it inwards, both ways, thus raising the crown higher by a new addition of soil, and making the old furrows deeper by taking some more soil out of them. I have seen in my youth, said the farmer, fields that have been ploughed in this way from time immemorial, and never in any other; and the consequence was (the ridges being twelve or fifteen feet wide), that the crowns of the ridges were probably two feet higher than the level of the furrows, which had become large trenches, and from which all the soil, or all that was valuable, had been taken and thrown up, furrow after furrow, to the very crowns of the ridges.

We have frequently seen the most expert and practised ploughmen-men who were able to perform their work in a neat and handsome manner-ploughing every furrow as straight as if it had been set out by a line, and never deviating in the breadth or thickness of the furrows, so that upon inspecting their work it was impossible that the most fastidious master could find fault with it; and yet, after all, in the absence of some superior directing power, they were by no means efficient workmen. This may appear, at first sight, somewhat paradoxical, but we will proceed to explain our meaning. A labourer may be taught mechanically, as it were, to perform this or that sort of work, according to some plan or pattern laid before him, until by care and constant practice he attains the desired degree of perfection; but all this while, if the reasons for performing operations after some peculiar manner have never been explained to him, nor he has never had the interest or curiosity to make the necessary inquiries, such persons may be very little better than machines set in motion, for they possess no views or ideas of their own. One of the chief acquirements in a ploughman is, in addition to turning up straight or

even furrows, such an acquaintance with the nature and qualities of the various sorts of soil as will enable him, in the absence of an intelligent master, to plough deep or shallow furrows, and to lay his ridges in the most approved way, both as regards the water being carried off, and the facility with which the land may be cultivated. The width of the ridges too should always be considered; for although narrow ridges are far more general than they used to be, where the soil is light, and the situation naturally dry, there can be no good reason given for sowing such land in very narrow ridges; for except under very peculiar circumstances, the grain does not thrive so well in the furrows as upon the ridges. Where the ground is hilly, particular care ought to be exercised regarding the way in which the ridges and furrows run. Formerly it used to be the almost universal custom to plough such situations directly up and down the declivities, whereby an exceedingly powerful team was necessary in order to draw the up-hill furrows; and when the work was completed, heavy falls of rain were sure to wash away the seed and a large quantity of soil down the furrows, thereby injuring the present crops as well as those that might succeed them. In those days there were none of those hand-wrest ploughs, with moveable mould-boards, calculated to plough steep banks, where there is no particular objection to having all the furrows turned one way, that is, down-hill; whereas, at the present day, where it is not considered that furrows are necessary for carrying off the water, such declivities may be ploughed horizontally, by the aid of ploughs of the above description. But in most cases, where the ground has a considerable descent, without being what would be considered very steep, as Mr. Lightfoot explained one day to Robert, when he was sent to plough up a piece of ground where a broad-cast crop of turnips had grown, that the best plan, and that which is now usually adopted, of ploughing such places, is to let the furrows run diagonally, or slanting along the side of the ascent sufficiently so as to allow of the water passing off, but at the same time cutting the acclivity in such a way that there shall be no great difficulty in turning the furrows against the ascent.

INDUSTRIOUS MONARCH.

IT was the custom of Peter the Great to visit the different workshops and manufactories, not only to encourage them, but also to judge what other useful establishments might be formed in his dominions. Among the places he visited frequently, were the forges of Müller, at Istia, ninety versts from Moscow. The Czar once passed a whole month there; during which time, after giving due attention to the affairs of state, which he never neglected, he amused himself with seeing and examining everything in the most minute manner, and even employed himself in learning the business of a blacksmith. He succeeded so well, that one day, before he left the place, he forged eighteen poods of iron, and put his own particular mark on each bar. The boyars, and other noblemen of his suite, were employed in blowing the bellows, stirring the fire, carrying coals, and performing the other duties of a blacksmith's assistant. When Peter had finished, he went to the proprietor, praised his manufactory, and asked him how much he gave his workmen per pood. "Three kopecks, or an altina," answered Müller. Very well," replied the Czar; "I have then earned eighteen altinas." Müller brought eighteen ducats, offered them to Peter, and told him that he could not give a workman like his majesty less per pood. Peter refused the sum, saying, Keep your ducats, I have not wrought better than any other man; give ine what you would give to another; I want to buy a pair of shoes, of which Í am in great need." At the same time he showed him his shoes, which had been once mended, and were again full of holes. Peter accepted the eighteen altinas, and bought himself a pair of new shoes, which he used to show with much pleasure, saying," These I earned with the sweat of my brow."

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One of the bars of iron forged by Peter the Great, and authenticated by his mark, is still to be seen in Istia, in the forge of Müller. Another bar is preserved at St. Petersburgh.-Peter was a wonderful instance of self-denial and perseverance; and it is undoubtedly to his great qualities that Russia is indebted for the position she is entitled to sustain among nations.

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Thou man thy image mad'st, in dignity,
In knowledge and in beauty like to thee;
Placed in a heaven on earth; without his toil,
The ever flourishing and fruitful soi!
Unpurchased food produced: all creatures were
His subjects, serving more for love than fear.
SANDYS.

When by his word God had accomplish'd all,
Man to create he did a council call;
Employ'd His hand to give the dust He took
A graceful figure and majestic look;
With His own breath convey'd into his breast
Life and a soul fit to command the rest.

What weaker breast,

WALLER.

Since Adam's armour fail'd, dares warrant his?
That, made by God of all His creatures best,
Straight made himself the worst of all the rest:
If any strength we have, it is to ill;
But all the good is God's, both power and will:
The dead man cannot rise, though he himself
may kill.
GILES FLETCHER.

Troops of unknown diseases, sorrow, age,

And death assail him with successive rage,
Hell let forth all her furies: none so great
As man to man, ambition, pride, deceit;
Wrong arm'd with power, vice, rapine, slaughter
reign'd,

And flatter'd vice the name of virtue gain'd.
SANDYS.

O happy pair, Lords of fair Eden's blooming range, where earth, Benignant parent, from her verdant lap Spontaneous pour'd immortal.sweets, and gave Whate'er could minister delight! Too soon, Alas, this scene was closed: behold them now, So lately rich in happiness, and bless'd With converse of the living God, o'erwhelm'd In misery, and tortured by the stings Of conscious guilt!

SAMUEL HAYES.

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STATISTICS.

POPULATION OF MANCHESTER.-A census of Manchester, just taken, shows the population of Manchester to number 339,427 persons.

EDUCATION IN POLAND.-In 1850, Poland had 1,561 schools, containing 82,942 pupils,-being fifty-seven pupils for every one thousand inhabitants.

PRIMITIVE METHODISTS.-The first little band thirty-three years ago, was a "class" of about twenty, but now they have 6,000 regular travelling preachers, about 10,00 lay preachers, 5,255 chapels, and 109,000 members, with an increase of between 4,000 and 5,000 members every year.

STATUTE LAW OF ENGLAND.-According to the statement of Mr. G. Willmore, Q.C., the statute law of this country occupies no less than thirty-eight quarto volumes, some of the latter containing more than a thousand pages of close print, exclusive of the index. The weight of this cart-load is said to amount to 221 pounds avoirdupois weight.

LONGEVITY. - We read, in the Paris Constitutionnel," It is said that men live to a greater age than women, on account of their more robust constitution. This is remarked more particularly among the people of the north than those of the south. " We read in a Russian statistical journal that, in 1850, there died, in that empire, three men who had lived to the ages of 153, 152, and 151 years, whilst the oldest woman had only reached 130 years. It is remarked that in many communes of France, longevity proceeds in an inverse ratio.

PERNICIOUS LITERATURE -The circulation of pernicious publications is immense. In 1845 it was calculated from London alone there was a yearly circulation of stamped and unstamped newspapers and serials of a decidedly pernicious character to the extent of 28,862,000! During the last five years, while cheap religious periodicals have made limited progress, either in num bers or interest, the corrupt printing press has been unceasingly at work. The present circulation in London of immoral unstamped publications of a halfpenny to three-halfpence each, must be upwards of 400,000 weekly, which would give the enormous issue of 20,800,000 yearly.

PAUPERISM IN ENGLAND.-Out of a popula tion of 17,000,000, it appears that 1,000,000 per sons constantly receive relief, or, in other words, are maintained at the expense of their neighbours, and that 3,000,000 (or from 1 in 5 to 1 ix of the whole population) receive relief to a greater or less extent in the course of a year. The number of children under 16 relieved for a longer or shorter period, out of the poor-rate, in the course of a given year, is estimated at 1,000,000, and the number of able-bodied male adults similarly relieved at no less than 300,000. This large body of paupers is maintained by funds proceeding from three different sources. viz., parochial and other old charities, voluntary contributions, and poor-rates, yielding respectively 1,200,000., 2,000,000l., and from 5,000,000. to 6,000,000. yearly; or altogether between eight and nine millions of money per annum.

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