other character shall any one be able to recognize this system? What language, then, must be spoken hereafter, since the language now spoken by all can no longer suffice for the spirit of controvery? All writers, without exception-Catholics, Jews, Protestants-M. de Wallon, in his History of Slavery; Grotius, in his Commentary upon the Gospel; Salvador, in his Life of Jesus, have signalized this partnership in goods or property, which, even from the cradle of Christianity, they have called by its true name-the community of goods; though the "Universe" alleges, in set terms, that this participation was precisely the contrary of a community of goods! (To be continued.)

SOCIAL SCIENCE.-No. 5. LABOUR.

"The riches of the State arise from the labour of the people."-Montesquieu. "There is no real wealth but the labor of men."-Godwin.

"Labor constitutes the wealth of nations."-Adam Smith.

"Without labor there is no wealth. Labor is the sole universal measure, as well as the characteristic distinction of wealth."-Thompson.

The land is sometimes called natural wealth; it is indeed a natural source of wealth, but not positively wealth until labor is bestowed upon it. It is the raw material whereon to labor, and it is labor that converts it into wealth. "Wealth is that which enricheth."-Johnson.

THE word "property "properly means that which pertains to a man external of himself; it means ownership, that which is nearly connected with a man and his own though no part of himself. A man's head and hands are his own, but being a part of himself we do not call them his property; but that which they perform or produce, whether physical or mental, is his property, his own individual or private property. All the proceeds of labour, whether intellectual or material, are the property of the labourer. Look at this huge metropolis-its paved and gas-lighted streets-its palaces and numerous superb structures, dwellings, warehouses, and shops filled with all the necessaries, comforts and luxuries of life, the useful and the ornamental-see the many carriages, useful, convenient and splended, the many theatres and other places of amusement, and all their gorgeous array. Look at all other cities and all that they contain in their structures and adornments, and what are they all, but the proceeds of labour? They are the entire creations of industrious men, save and except only the raw material out of which they are all created or produced. Of this raw material, man, with all his ingenuity and industry, cannot create or produce so much as a single atom; and therefore of this first necessity whereon to found labour, God in his munificence hath provided a superabundance in this beautiful and fertile earth whereon we live. "The earth He hath given to the children of men," that is to all men, not to any particular class but to all mankind; and therefore this raw material, before any labour is bestowed upon it, costs no man anything. What God hath given to man belongs to all. What man produces belongs to the producer. That is general and public, this is individual and private property.

The earth, the waters and all their spontaneous productions are the

natural inheritance of the living generation, they are required to sustain life; and during life the earth is our external world, for man hath two worlds, the world without and the world within him to cultivate, improve and enjoy; and with regard to both worlds he is necessarily an active working agent a working agent in everything physical, mental, intellectual, moral, and religious; he must work in order to attain, to possess, to deserve, to enjoy. But the work which nature requires is not slavish or degrading toil, but only healthful and pleasing exercise. There is nothing necessary to happiness-happiness of body and mind, but what nature has made necessary for the health and strength of both. Man by providing himself with such comforts and luxuries of life for which he may feel the desire, is, as it were, creating those things, and is thus elevated to the dignity of a co-operator with Deity in the work of creation; and the carrying out the designs of the Great Creator is made to depend on the work, the exertions, the industry of man. And all the natural happiness which man enjoys, or can enjoy on earth, arises from the gifts of God and the labour of man united.

In the present state of mechanical and other productive sciences and use of machinery, all rightly and justly applied one or two hours a day would give every man all the material wealth which enlightened men would desire or could enjoy. How much time thus might be spared for improvement in art and science, and for the more spiritual occupations of study, reflection, and contemplation-for enlarging our stock of knowledge, refining our tastes, and opening to us new and more exquisite sources of enjoyment.

A. C. C.

THE PROPER ARRANGEMENT OF SOCIETY.

THE point of view from which we must look on Society is this:

All of us, or some of our ancestors, at some time, or other, have been slavesblack, or white,--or have been compelled to undergo the yoke of repulsive employment of some kind or other.

No one of us would relish the idea of being reduced to the necessity of undertaking menial exercise, or any other, if possible,' more repulsive employment, in order to obtain the means of living.

Therefore, obeying the universal Law-Do unto others that which ye would that others should do unto you'-our Duty is clear, viz. :

To arrange Society in such a manner as to minimise the amount of domestic service, and of all other repulsive work-which, even under the best possible Societarian arrangements, may still be required by the absolute needs of Society and in such a manner also as that such service, or work, may be rendered as little repulsive, and irksome, as possible to those who have to do it.

Now these things (of the highest possible importance) can only then be secured for the benefit of the whole world,' when Home Companies,' such as I have, elsewhere, described, shall have been (wherever possible) established all over the surface of the Globe.

Suppose such Companies formed, and Land purchased, or taken on lease (with eventual right of purchase).

Each Company would occupy a district of from twenty to forty thousand

acres.

{

The place for the manufacture of every kind of production likely to be required by, or to be profitable to, the Company would be situated near the centre of the said district; and, at convenient distances from the centre, and from each other, Five, or more, Home Company-Dwelling Places (such as I have described in the Paper headed 'The Condition of England Question,')' would be, duly, distributed round the centre of the District.

The Population would be about 10,000 souls, nearly equally divided among the several Home Company-Dwelling Places.

The memders of the Company would find employment, of every variety, in manufacture, and in agriculture, &c, within the district, in the service of the Company.

In return for work done, they would receive, from the Company, fair remuneration; while they would have the benefit of being supplied, by the Company, with all the requisites, and luxuries, of life (according to the requirements, and means, of each member) at the lowest possible charge.

The members would also have the choice of all sorts of exercises, and 'harmless' amusements, placed within their reach.

Tramways would convey manufacturers, and field labourers, to and from their places of occupation, daily; all returning, each evening, to their comfortable homes in their respective Home Company-Dwelling Places.

This arrangement would reverse the condition so long, vainly, hitherto sought for; instead of the 'impossible Rus in Urbe' of the Romans-the English would have gained for themselves the quite practicable' Urbs in Rure; and they would, at the same time, have arrived at that condition in which the greatest attainable degree of comfort' might be secured for all.

I have been told that, if I could succeed in persuading people to establish one such Home Company,' others would soon be formed.

It is proposed that the first Company should be formed by a sufficient number of selected Heads of Families, of different classes, but consisting of persons, as much as possible, of congenial dispositions.

:

For example, there are somethings which many of us agree in disliking: Intemperance of every kind; Cruel Sporting; Horse Racing; Betting; Tobacco Smoking, &c.; Dancing, and Play-acting.

Let us begin hy keeping such things at a distance from us; if we find that any of them are really essential to our comfort, hereafter, we can, then, have recourse to them.

It has been said that it would be difficult to find 'persons of a sufficiently high type of human nature, as it, at present, exists,' suited for enjoying the comforts of the above described 'Homes.'

This is very far from being my opinion.

On the contrary--I believe that there is a sufficient number of persons, thoroughly qualified to form, and to enjoy the advantages of, many such Home Companies.' HENRY CLINTON.

CO-OPERATIVE NEWS.

BRADFORD-ON-AVON (Co-operative Society).-On Saturday, August the 2nd, this society celebrated its first anniversary by a fete or grand "field day," in a field kindly lent by Mr. G. Martin. The sports of the day were vast and varied, and were relieved at intervals by musical selections very creditably performed by the Bradford Amateur Brass Band, who volunteered their services, There was an excellent attendance, and everything went off right good humour from the bat to the ball, from the "run" to the dance, and an excellent tea brought the day's exercises to a close by preparing the way with its invigorating powers for the evening's public meeting, over which Mr. J. Allen, of Trowbridge, presided, and at which several good co-operative speeches were delivered, by Messrs. O. Venton, W. Ricketts, J. Stapleton, Jas. Oram. B. Allen, W. Lucas,

&c., &c. Several resolutions were passed, pledging the meeting to support the principles of co-operation, and a vote of thanks to Mr. Martin, for the generous use of his field, and the same compliment to the chairman, brought the "finish to a close," with three hearty cheers from every one present" on that happy day." BRISTOL EQUITABLE. From the seventh quarterly report of this society, which has recently been published, we find the committee congratulating the shareholders on the " prosperous and highly satisfactory condition of their society," although they "cannot speak of an increase of business, which they attribute to the great and general depression of trade." Although the purchases were £200 or £300 less than in the previous quarter, being then upwards of £400, they have now been enabled to declare a dividend of 1s. in the pound on members' purchases, and a bonus of 6d. in the pound on non-members' purchases, "and," says the report, "as the amount of dividend appears to be the criterion on which hangs the confidence of many towards co-operation, the British Equitable is taking a decided lead of the two societies now in Bristol, and we sincerely trust that nothing will arise to mar the hitherto successful progress of the concern.' [We opine that the "confidence" which hangs upon dividends is a very unsafe and untrue confidence, and this of itself will, if we are not mistaken, be one of the "nothings," which will arise and "mar" all hopes of success ultimately. We shall watch and wait.]

BRISTOL (Provident and Industrial).-We are pleased to hear that this society has been endeavouring to erect itself into an institution on a surer basis than mere dividends, by the purchase of land, and building thereon premises suitable for stores and bakehouses. The site is situate in St. George's Road, and the building, which is neat and commodious, is near its completion, and it is expected will be handed over to the committee finished, in a few days. This will be one of the largest Co-operative Institutions in the West of England, and we wish the enterprise every success.

BURY.-The trade profit and capital of this society is materially effected by the state of trade, but not dangerously, for there is little doubt of its being able to weather the storm. One of the members being recently expelled for misconduct, sought his remedy in a court of law, but the judge held he had no jurisdiction, as the laws of the society provided for the settlement of disputes by arbitration.

CHIPPENHAM.-A co-operative society is about to be opened in this quiet town, and a friend writes, asking us to forward the Working Man to Mr. John Baily, who, he says, has taken a prominent part in the affair. Upwards of 80 members have already handed in their names, £15 has been subscribed, and rules have been sent to London to be registered. [We hope they are "model" rules, few in number, explicit in their language, and just in their meaning. Of course, the registrar attends to this particularly.]

COVENTRY (Industrial Co-operative Society.-We have received the eighth quarterly report of this Society, it commences by saying "It is now two years since this society was brought into existence by five poor working men, who met to consider the best means whereby they could improve their social condition. Having had experience that working men were powerless against capital, they resolved to create capital for themselves; and believing that in co-operation lay the means by which they could accomplish their object, they each deposited sixpence, and sought information from several co-operative societies in Lancashire, which was cordially and freely given," &c. The total receipts in the two years amount to £1,046 11 83; £854 5 3 has been received for goods sold; 130 members have been entered during the time, 22 withdrawn, being compelled to leave Coventry in search of employment; £25 14 8 has been withdrawn, leaving the capital in the society at the present time £96 13 71, 108 members on the book, with a list of 10 more propositions. The receipts this quarter show an increase over last quarter for goods sold of £74 14 61. The profits, after paying all expenses (notwithstanding the great increase of rents, rates, gas, &c.), 5 per cent. on paid up shares, will give a dividend of 8d. in the pound. "This will

show what working men can do, even in the worst of times, when they have the will." [It is the producing working classes of all countries who pay all that is paid in the shape of rents, rates, interest, &c., and we wish to see the time when working men shall be no longer "powerless against capital."]

DALKEITH.-On Tuesday the 29th July, the fourth quarterly meeting of the Co-operative Provision Society, established here, was held in the Scientific Hall. There was a good attendance, and Mr. H. Gillies occupied the chair. The chairman in a neat and forcible speech introduced the business of the evening, and concluded by calling on Mr. Mitchell Alexander, the Secretary, to read the report for the quarter ending July 16th, 1862. After paying all working expenses, with 5 per cent. to capital, and 5 per cent. to redemption of fixed stock, the committee are enabled to declare a dividend of 1s. 2d. in the pound on mem bers' purchases, and 7d. in the pound to non-member purchasers. During the twelve months the society has been in existence, they have sold goods to the amount of £3,100, or on an average of £775 per quarter. Members increase and business too, and everything indicates a good beginning with a better future. EAST LONDON.-Press of matter compelled us in our last to postpone the ninth quarterly report of this society ending June 30th to our present number. The Committee state that they have "fitted up a room over the store for a drapery [department], thereby necessitating an outlay of capital, but they hope members will compensate for this by making their necessary purchases, &c., &c." Amount of cash received for sale of goods during the quarter £466 7s. 1d.; contributions, £12 9s. 9d. Cash paid for goods £414 12s. 10d.; withdrawals, £28 19s. 10s. Amount of member's claims, £200 19s. 6d. After paying the usual 5 per cent. on capital, 10 per cent. for 'depreciation of fixed stock; 2 per cent. to educational fund, the committee have declared a dividend of 1s. 4d. in the pound on member's purchases, and call upon them to evert themselves to enable the Committee to make "their next Report appear more satisfactory than the present." [We are glad to see the Working Man and other labour journals announced in the balance sheet for sale at the stores.]

EDINBURGH (Building Society).-The operations of this body continue to progress. The third block of houses (eight in number) is now far advanced, and it is contemplated in a few days to commence other two blocks, which will make, with those finished, a splenid terrace of forty houses. The shares are being gradually disposed of, the central office in Lord Cockburn street having been found of great advantage.

GREAT AYTON (Co-operative Stores). The third quarterly report of this society was read at a meeting held July 21st, and unanimously adopted by the members present. The sales amounted to £189 3s. 9d., being an increase over previous quarter of £63 123. 01d. Contributions during the quarter £25 16s. 9d. Net profits on the quarter's transactions £21 13s 3d. which, after paying 5 per cent. to capital, and meeting all claims against the society, enables the committee to declare a dividend of 2s. in the pound on member's purchases, being a surplus of £8 3s. 4d. to be otherwise disposed of.

GUERNSEY.-We have some time ago announced there was to be a co-operative bakery established in Guernsey. We were surprised that we heard nothing new from this place since, we have written to enpuire, and received the following reply:"The reason why you have not heard, or had any report of the Guernsey Co-operative Society is, as soon as they were supplied with the necessary information for the ground work, they made it a Teetotal compact, and passed such arbitrary laws, and invested the committee with such power, and began with so many articles, that it would be a miracle if such a society did flourish, and as they have no prosperity to publish the committee would rather say nothing.— S. BENDALL.

HALIFAX (Flour Society).-On Saturday evening, the 9th ult., the half-yearly meeting of the above society was held in the Odd Fellows Hall, under the