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AERO- the utmost consternation, taking with them their cattle. NAUTICS. The aeronauts, fearing that this terror might be attended with serious consequences to them, after throwing out part of their ballast, again ascended, and continued their voyage, ultimately arriving at Wichtenbeck, on the road to Zell.

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When the balloon first rose, the atmosphere below was very serene, but it was cloudy above; they observed, that as they ascended the heat decreased very sensibly, and that they could look at the sun without being dazzled. The barometer, which before the ascent stood at 27 inches, fell to 14, where it appeared to become stationary; and the thermometer sunk to 4 below zero. Having, while thus situated, taken some refreshment, they ascended higher, viz. till the barometer fell to 124 inches; and at that height the cold out of the car was insupportable, although the thermometer was now only one degree below the freezing point. Here our adventurers were obliged to respire very rapidly, and their pulsations became very quick. In this region, while the balloon was invisible to the earth, Mr. Robertson made the following experiments:

1. Having let a drop of ether fall on a piece of glass, it evaporated in four seconds.

2. He electrified by friction glass and sealing wax; but these substances gave no signs of the accumulation of electric fluid that could be communicated to other bodies. The Voltaic pile, which, when the balloon was set free from the earth, acted with its full force, gave only one-tenth part of its electricity.

3. The dipping needle seemed to have lost its magnetic virtue, and could not be brought to that direction which it had at the surface of the earth.

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5. At this height Mr. Robertson was not able to extract any electricity from the atmospheric electrometer and condenser.

6. In consequence of a suggestion from Professor Helmbstadt, of Berlin, Mr. Robertson carried with him two birds. The rarefaction of the air killed one of them, and the other was unable to fly; it lay extended on its back, but fluttered with its wings.

part of the earth the balloon at any time was hovering, AEROthe two following methods were employed.

NAUTICS.

In an aperture made in the bottom of the car, there was fixed perpendicularly, an achromatic telescope, which showed very distinctly those terrestrial objects over which the balloon happened to be, and to which side it directed its course. In the next place, two sheets of black paper were fixed together at right angles, and suspended from the car with a piece of thread, which was intended to indicate any variation in the direction of the balloon, and was therefore called the way wiser: it answered its purpose much better than had been anticipated. At about a quarter past seven in the evening, when the barometer stood at 30 inches, and the centigrade thermometer at 19°, the machine ascended, and at 31 minutes past seven the barometer had sunk to 29 inches, and the thermometer to 18°; the first cask was now filled with air, and six minutes after, when the barometer had fallen another inch, the second cask was opened and filled. At this time, as the towns and villages were obscured by a fog, the paper way wiser was thrown out, which indicated any variation in the direction of the balloon, as also its sinking and rising; for as soon as the machine fell, the way wiser, as it was much lighter than the balloon, and found more resistance in falling, appeared to fly up, and when the balloon rose, it sunk to the full length of its thread; at other times it was found to hold a diagonal direction, and in short pointed out with considerable accuracy, with the assistance of the compass needle, not only any variation in the motion, but the actual direction of the whole machine.

7. Water began to boil by means of a moderate degree of heat maintained with quick lime.

8. According to observations made, it appeared that the clouds never rise above 2000 toises; and it was only in ascending and descending through clouds, that Mr. Robertson was able to obtain positive electricity. The greatest height attained in this voyage is estimated at 2600 toises.

Mr. Robertson afterwards, viz. on the 30th of June, albert-1804, ascended from Petersburgh with the academician Sacharof: the aeronauts, taking with them, for the purpose of making the different experiments proposed by the academy, twelve exhausted flasks, a barometer and attached thermometer, a detached thermometer, two electrometers, sealing wax and sulphur, a compass and magnetic needle, a seconds watch, a bell, a speaking trumpet, a prism of crystal, and unslaked lime, and a few other apparatus for chemical and philosophical experiments.

In order to ascertain with some precision, over what

Having, at twenty-five minutes past eight, ascended to such a height that the barometer stood at twenty-six inches, another cask was filled with air; and soon afterwards another, when the barometer was at twentyfive inches; and the same was done for every inch of descent of the mercury. At about thirty minutes past nine, the barometer indicated twenty-two inches, and the thermometer 41°; at which time the voyagers saw the sun; it was about half obscured either by a fog or by the horizon, but they could not distinguish which. At this period they commenced the following series of experiments and observations. A piece of sealing-wax rubbed with cloth, put in motion Bennet's electrometer. The magnetic needle, which was taken for the purpose of examining the inclination, had been damaged; but in order to ascertain whether the magnetic power still remained the same, as at the earth's surface, Mr. Sacharof placed a common magnetic needle, on a pin, and was surprised to find the north end rise, and consequently the south descend considerably, making an angle of ten or twelve degrees. This experiment being repeated several times, both by this gentleman and Mr. Robertson, the result was constantly the same; after descending, and at present, Mr. Sacharof observes, the same needle assumes a horizontal position. At this height the aeronauts did not experience the slightest inconvenience, except that their ears were benumbed with the cold. My pulse," says Mr. Sacharof, "beat as on the earth, that is, eighty-two times in a minute, and I breathed twenty-two times in the same interval, as is usual with me. In a word, I was exceedingly tranquil and cheerful, and experienced no change or uneasiness." At that time there were white clouds a great way above the balloon, but the heavens in general were clear and bright, notwithstanding

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AERO- which, however, they could observe no stars. Mr. NAUTICS. Sacharof at this time proposed to continue their voyage all night, in order that they might see the sun rise, and have time to make other experiments; but being ignorant of the country over which they were then floating, and the almost total consumption of their ballast, and the continual though gradual and slow sinking of the balloon, induced Mr. Robertson to reject this proposal. As the aeronauts were now floating over some towns or villages, Mr. Sacharof took his speaking-trumpet, and directing it towards the earth, called as loud as he was able, when, contrary to his expectation, he heard his own words after a considerable interval, clearly and distinctly repeated by an echo; he called out again several times, and each time the echo repeated his words in about ten seconds; at this time the barometer was removed for the purpose of descending, so that he could make no observation upon it; but computing by the supposed velocity of sound, he must then have been about 5,700 feet from the earth. In order that the descent might be made as safely as possible, and for the sake of security, all the instruments and warm clothing were tied up in a bundle, and let down together with an anchor by a rope. The balloon, which was driven by the wind with considerable force, and fell with great rapidity, was, notwithstanding, so light, that when the bundle reached the earth, and the machine was in part divested of this load, it had a tendency to rise; in the mean time, however, Mr. Robertson suffering the gas to escape, the descent was ultimately effected in the gentlest and pleasantest manner possible, at about forty-five minutes past ten, on the estate of Counsellor Demidof; but it unfortunately happened, by the bundle being drawn for a considerable distance along the ground, that most of the instruments were destroyed, and only four of the eight casks that had been charged, were in a state proper for experiment. We have given the detail of the two preceding ascents, not in consequence of the importance of the observations or experiments that were performed in them, but because they seem to have been the first aerial excursions made purely with a view to philosophical research; and moreover, because in some respects the inferences to be drawn from them are at variance with the deductions formed from the experiments performed in the two following ascents; the first by Biot and Gay-Lussac, and the second by the latter philosopher alone.

Biot and GayLussac.

M. Biot and Gay-Lussac ascended from the Conservatoire des Arts, on the 24th of August, 1804, their principal object being to examine whether the magnetic power experienced any appreciable diminution as we ascend from the terrestrial surface. It seems from the account given by Messrs. Sacharof and Robertson, that there was at least a change in the dipping power; and Saussure, from experiments made on the Col du Geant, at the height of 3435 metres above the level of the sea, thought he could perceive a very sensible decrease of magnetic virtue, which he estimated at one-fifth. It had even been asserted by some aëronauts, that the magnetic energy vanishes entirely at a certain height; and it appeared important to many of the members of the Institute to ascertain the truth or fallacy of these assertions, and Saussure, in particular, was anxious that his observations might be repeated in isolated situations remote from any effect of local attractions. Besides the usual provisions of barometers, ther

mometers, hygrometers, and electrometers, MM. Biot AEROand Gay-Lussac took with them two compasses and a NAUTICS dipping needle, with another fine needle carefully magnetized, and suspended by a very delicate silk thread, Apparatus for ascertaining by its vibration the force of the mag- and instru netic attractions in the upper regions of the atmos- ments. phere; and, to examine the electricity of the different strata of this medium, they carried several metallic wires, from 60 to 300 feet in length, and a small electrophorus slightly charged. For galvanic experiments, they had procured a few discs of zinc and copper, with some frogs; to which were also added some insects and birds.

It was also proposed to bring back air collected at as great a height as possible; for which purpose they had an exhausted glass ball closely shut; so that to fill it with air at any place, it was only necessary to open it, and then to stop it again with care and security.

Thus prepared, the two philosophers took their departure at 10 o'clock in the morning of the day above stated. The barometer standing at 28 inches 3 lines, or 30.13 inches English; Reaumur's thermometer at 13o.2, and the hygrometer at 80°-8, consequently very near to the greatest degree of humidity.

The ascent was extremely pleasant and gradual, and The ascen the novelty, beauty, and magnificence of the spectacle which now for the first time burst upon them, engaged all the attention of our philosophers, while the indistinct buz of distant gratulations from innumerable spectators gently met their ear. These first moments being passed, they entered the region of the clouds, which seemed like a thin fog, and gave them a slight sensation of humidity. The balloon now had become quite inflated, and they were obliged to let part of the gas escape by opening the upper valve; at the same time throwing out some ballast to gain a greater elevation, and in a few minutes they had risen completely above the clouds, which they did not enter again till their return. These clouds had in this situation a similar blueish tint to that which they exhibit from the surface of the earth, while their upper surface, full of small eminences and undulations, presented to the aeronauts the appearance of a vast plain covered with snow. At this time their altitude, computed according to Laplace's barometrical formulæ, was 2000 metres, or about 6500 English feet, and here their observations and experiments first commenced.

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On attempting to make their needle oscillate, they Experine discovered that the balloon had a slight rotatory motion, which made a continual variation between the position of the car and the direction of the needle, and thus prevented them from observing the point where the oscillations terminated. The magnetic property, however, was not destroyed; for on presenting a small piece of iron to the needle, attraction took place. The rotatory motion became sensible when the ropes of the car were brought into a straight line with any terrestrial object, or with the edges of the clouds, the contours of which were sensibly distinguishable the one from the other.

Being thus prevented from making these observations with all the accuracy they could have desired, they proceeded to other experiments.

Electricity was excited by the contact of insulated metals, the same as on the earth. An electric pile was prepared with 20 discs of copper and as many of zinc, from which was obtained, as usual, the pungent taste, a shock, and the decomposition of water. All this, M. Biot observes, might have been foreseen, since it is known the

ERO action of this pile does not cease even in a vacuum. NAULICS. Their computed height was about 2724 metres. At this elevation the animals they carried with them seemed to Eric ex suffer no inconvenience from the rarety of the air; a permeats, violet bee, which they now sent off, flew quickly away with its usual humming noise; the barometer at this time was at 20 inches, and the thermometer 10°-40, answering to 55°-4 of the Fahrenheit scale; yet they experienced no cold, but, on the contrary, felt scorched with the heat of the sun's rays; their pulses were much accelerated; that of Gay-Lussac, from its usual beat of 60 to 80 pulsations per minute, and that of Biot from 79 to 111; they still, however, experienced no sort of uneasiness, nor any difficulty in breathing. The balloon still continued its rotatory, or rather its oscillating motion, for it was observed, by means of distant objects, as above stated, that they did not always revolve in the same way; for after a certain time the motion became less sensible, and ultimately ceased, when another vibration began in the opposite direction. Metic The voyagers took advantage of these momentary cespats sations to make their magnetic experiments; but as this stationary state continued only for a few moments, it was not possible to observe even so few as twenty conse cutive vibrations as on the earth. They were, therefore, under the necessity of being satisfied with ten, or even five, taking at the same time great care not to agitate the car; for the slightest motion, even of the hand in writing down their observations, was found sufficient to turn them aside. They made ten series of observations of this kind at different altitudes, from 2897 metres to 3977 metres, which in all amounted to 65 oscillations, and the mean of the whole, and of each set separately, gave very nearly the same result as their observations on the earth's surface. From these observations, M. Biot concludes, that the magnetic property experiences no appreciable diminution from the surface of the earth to the height of 4000 metres, or 15748 English feet; its action within these limits being constantly manifested by the same effect, and according to the same law. With respect to the inclination of the magnetic needle, M. Biot observes, that he was not able to observe it with so much accuracy, and therefore cannot assert positively that it experiences no variation; although he thinks it very probable that it does not, its horizontal force having undergone no variation. At least, if any such did take place, it was very inconsiderable, because the magnetic bars, brought into equilibrium before their departure, retained their horizontality during their whole journey, which would not have been the case had the force which tends to incline them experienced any sensible change.

The declination of the needle was also another object of the research of these philosophers, but the weather, and the disposition of the apparatus, did not permit them to come to any decided conclusion on this point; they seem, however, to incline here also to the opinion that it does not vary in any sensible manner.

M. Biot and Gay-Lussac had now ascended to the the height of 13,385 feet, but had not yet made many of their electric experiments, their attention having been almost entirely engrossed with their observations on the magnet, which was the principal object they had in view. In order now to try the apparatus, a wire was let down 240 feet in length, which being insulated, electricity was extracted from its upper extremity, and applied to the

VOL. XVII.

This AERO

electrometer; and it was found to be resinous.
experiment was performed twice at the same moment;
first by destroying the atmospheric electricity by the
influence of the vitreous electricity of the electrophorus,
and secondly by destroying the vitreous electricity ex-
tricated from the electrophorus, by means of the at-
mospheric electricity. In this manner it was ascer-
tained that the latter was resinous.

NAUTICS.

From these experiments it was inferred that the electricity increases as we ascend farther from the surface of the earth, which agrees with the theory and experiments of Volta and Saussure. The observations on the thermometer indicated on the contrary, a decrease of temperature as we ascend upwards, which is also agreeable to results before known; but the difference was much less than might have been expected; for on rising to the height of 2,000 toises, viz. far above the limits of perpetual snow in the latitudes of Paris or London, the temperature did not fall below 50°.9 on Fahrenheit's scale, the thermometer indicating at the same moment at the observatory no more than 631°. Another remarkable fact given by these observations Humidity. is, that the hygrometer always advanced towards dry ness as the balloon rose in the atmosphere, and that in descending it gradually returned to humidity. At the time the ascent took place, this instrument indicated 80°.8 at 16°-5 of the centigrade thermometer, and at the elevation of 4000 metres, though the temperature was only 10°5, it gave no more than 30°. The air is consequently much drier in the upper regions than at the surface of the earth; this at least is the conclusion that M. Biot wishes to deduce from the above results, but we have seen the justness of it questioned. It has been observed, that the indications of the hygroscope depend on the relative attraction for humidity possessed by the substances employed, and the medium in which it is immersed. But air has its disposition to retain moisture, always augmented by rarefaction, and consequently such alteration alone must materially affect the hygroscope. Such are the results of this, which has generally been considered the most scientific ascent that had yet been made; and having accompanied the aeronauts thus far on their voyage, we propose to attend them in their descent, which took place under the following circumstances:

The ballast being very nearly all expended, they re- Descent. solved to descend by permitting part of the hydrogen gas to escape. When they had descended to within 4000 feet of the earth's surface, the balloon entered the stratum of clouds spoken of above, extending horizontally, but with the surface heaved into gentle swells. When they reached the ground, no people were near to stop the machine, in consequence of which they were dragged in the car to some distance along the fields. From this aukward and even dangerous situation they could not extricate themselves, without discharging all the remaining gas.

It has been reported that M. Biot, though a man of activity, and apparent firmness, was so overpowered by the alarm of their descent, as to lose, for the time, the entire possession of himself, notwithstanding, in his memoir, presented a few days afterwards to the Institute, he proposed to go up again, if such were the wish of that learned body.

GayHe did not, however, ascend a second time, but at Lussac's sethe desire of several philosophers in Paris, M. Gay-cond ascent.

U

AERO- Lussac made another voyage alone on the 15th of NAUTICS. September; the ascent taking place from the same ground, at about forty minutes past nine o'clock in the morning. Experience had instructed this philosopher to reduce his apparatus, and to adapt them better to actual circumstances. As he could only count the vibrations of the magnetic needle during the very short intervals which occurred between the contrary rotations of the balloon, he preferred one of not more than six inches in length, which therefore oscillated quicker. The dipping needle was magnetized and adjusted by the ingenious M. Coulomb. To protect the thermometer from the direct action of the sun, it was enclosed within two concentric cylinders of pasteboard, covered with gilt paper. The hygrometers, constructed on Richer's principle, with four hairs, were sheltered nearly in the same manner. Two glass flasks, intended to bring down air from the highest regions of the atmosphere, had been exhausted, till the mercurial gauge stood at the 25th part of an inch; and their stop cocks were so perfectly fixed, that after the lapse of eight days they still preserved the vacuum. These articles, with two barometers, were the principal instruments which M. Gay-Lussac took with him. The baro meter at the time of the ascent, stood at 76-525 centimetres, or 30-66 English inches; the hygrometer at 57.5, and the thermometer at 27.50 of the centigrade; or 82° of Fahrenheit's thermometer. Scarcely had M. Gay-Lussac ascended to the height of 3000 feet, when he saw a light vapour dispersed throughout the

whole atmosphere below him, through which distant AËR objects could only be observed confusedly. When he NAUT had ascended to the height of 3032 metres, or about 9950 English feet, he began his experiments on the horizontal needle, which was found to make 20 oscillations in 83", while at the earth, 83" would have been necessary to perform the same number. At the height of 12680 feet the inclination of the needle, taking a mean of the amplitude of the oscillations, was sensibly 31°, as at the observatory; but much time and patience was necessary for making this observation, because though carried away by the mass of the atmosphere, a slight wind was continually experienced, which deranged the position of the compass; and after several fruitless attempts to repeat it, the philosopher was obliged to renounce making any farther observations of this kind.

The same fate attended M. Gay-Lussac's observations on the dipping needle; for the dryness, favoured by the action of the sun, in a rarefied air, was so great, that the compass became deranged by the bending of the metallic circle, on which the divisions were traced out, so as to render all his deductions uncertain; declining therefore these hopeless parts of his enquiry, he proceeded to his other experiments, in which he was much more successful; and in order to bring them better under an immediate point of view, they are arranged by the author, in his report of his voyage, in a tabular form, which we think also the best way of presenting them to our readers.

Table of the Observations of Mr. GAY-LUSSAC, in his ascent on the 15th of September, 1804.

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AERO

If now we cast our eye over the table of results, it AUTICS. will be seen that the temperature follows an irregular law in regard to the corresponding heights, which, our philosopher supposes, arises from the circumstance of the observations being sometimes made in ascending, and others in descending, and that the thermometer obeyed the actual variations too slowly. But if we consider only the degrees of the thermometer which form a decreasing series, we shall find a more regular law; thus the temperature at the earth being 27.75, and at the height of 3691, 85, if we divide the difference of the heights by that of the temperatures, we shall first obtain 1917 metres, or 98.3 toises of elevation for each lowering of one degree of temperature. Performing the same operation for the temperatures 5°-25 and 0.5, as well as for those of 0°·0 and -9°.25, we shall find in both cases 241-6 metres, or 72-6 toises of elevation for each degree of temperature, which seems to indicate, that towards the surface of the earth the heat follows a less decreasing law than in the upper parts of the atmosphere, and at greater heights it follows a decreasing arithmetical progression. The lowest point of temperature observed was -9°.25, corresponding to 140-9 of Fahrenheit's thermometer; the corresponding height being then equal to 23040 English feet above the earth's surface, or 4 miles.

ir flasks.

The hygrometer had a very remarkable progress. At the surface of the earth it was only 5740, while, at the height of 3030 metres, it marked 62°. From this point it continually fell, till the balloon reached the height of 5267 metres, where it indicated 271°, and thence to the height of 6884 metres it gradually rose to 344°. If we wish, from these results, to determine the law of the quantity of water dissolved in the air at different elevations, it is evident that attention must be paid to the temperature, and, by adding this consideration, it will be found to follow a rapidly decreasing progression.

With respect to the magnetic operations, all that can be concluded from them is, that it seems highly probable that no sensible difference in the action of the magnetic force is observable at the greatest heights to which we can ascend, and some doubt is certainly thrown, from the results of this and the preceding voyage, on the deductions drawn from that of Messrs. Sacharof and Robertson.

The two air flasks to which we have alluded were opened, one at the height of 21460 feet, and the other at 21790 feet, when the air rushed into them through the narrow aperture with a whistling noise; having properly stopped the orifices again, the balloon soon after attained its greatest height, 4 English iniles, when the barometer indicated only 12.95 inches.

From this stupendous height M. Gay-Lussac still saw clouds at a considerable height above, but none below, although the atmosphere had a dull misty appearance, which destroyed its transparent quality; the limit, therefore, fixed by M. Sacharof for the greatest height of the clouds is obviously erroneous.

While occupied with experiments at this enormous elevation, M. Gay-Lussac, though well cloathed, began to suffer from excessive cold, and his hands, by continual exposure, grew benumbed. He felt likewise a difficulty in breathing, and his pulse and respiration were much quickened. His throat became so parched that he could scarcely swallow a morsel of bread; but

he experienced no other direct inconvenience from his AEROsituation. He had, indeed, been affected through the NAUTICS. whole day with a slight head-ache, brought on by preceding fatigues and want of sleep, but though it continued without abatement, it was not increased by his ascent.

The ballast being now reduced to 33 pounds, and Descent. the balloon completely distended, it began to drop; and M. Gay-Lussac, therefore, only sought to regulate its descent. It subsided very gently, at the rate of about a mile in eight minutes, and in little more than half an hour the anchor touched the ground, and instantly secured the car. The voyager alighted with great ease near the hamlet of St. Gourgon, about 16 miles north-west of Rouen. As soon as he reached Paris, he hastened to the laboratory of the Polytecnic School with his flasks containing the air of the higher regions, and proceeded to analyse it in the presence of Thenard and Gresset. When opened under water, the fluid rushed into the vessels, and apparently half filled their capacity. The transported air was found, by a very delicate analysis, to contain exactly the same proportions as that collected near the surface of the earth, every 1000 Analysis of parts holding 215 of oxygen. From concurring obser- the air. vations, therefore, we may conclude that the atmosphere is essentially the same in all situations.

We have given the details of the two preceding ascents at considerable length, in consequence of the scientific researches the aeronauts had in view, and which they accomplished, if not entirely in such a manner as to satisfy the eager curiosity of philosophers, at least in a way highly creditable to themselves, when we consider all the difficulties of their situations. The length of detail, however, to which we have extended our remarks on these scientific voyages, renders it necessary to pass slightly over others performed merely to gratify the curiosity of spectators, although many of these even were attended with circumstances highly curious and interesting to the general reader. shall confine our remarks only to the following:

On the 7th of April, 1806, M. Mosment, an expe- Fatal ascent rienced aëronaut, undertook an aerial voyage from Lisle; of Mosment. he ascended at noon, waving a flag decorated with the imperial eagle, amid the shouts of the assembled spectators. The commencement of his career was SO rapid, as to carry him, in a very short time, beyond the vision of the crowd. During his ascent he dropped a dog, attached to a parachute, which came safely to the ground. About one o'clock something was observed slowly descending through the atmosphere, which proved, on its fall, to be the flag that M. Mosment had carried with him. Very soon after, a murmur circulated through the crowd, that the body of the unfortu nate adventurer was discovered in one of the fosses of the city, lifeless, and covered with blood, which proved but too correct. The balloon reached the ground on the same day, at the distance of twenty-five leagues from Lisle. The car contained nothing except an unloaded pistol, a little bread, and a piece of meat. M. Garnerin ascribes this melancholy disaster to the extreme shallowness of the car, and the too great distance between the cords which attached it to the balloon; and is of opinion that M. Mosment, in leaning over the car to drop the animal, had lost his balance and was thus precipitated to the earth. Another interesting voyage was that undertaken by

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