Reformation

religion.

nian and the Parthian yoke, the nations of Europe and Asia had mutually adopted and corrupted each other's of the Magian superstitions. The Arsacides, indeed, practised the worship of the Magi; but they disgraced and polluted it with a various mixture of foreign idolatry. The memory of Zoroaster, the ancient prophet and philosopher of the Persians,' was still revered in the East; but the obsolete and mysterious language in which the Zendavesta was composed opened a field of dispute to seventy sects, who va

'Hyde and Prideaux, working up the Persian legends and their own conjectures into a very agreeable story, represent Zoroaster as a contemporary of Darius Hystaspis. But it is sufficient to observe, that the Greek writers who lived almost in the age of Darius agree in placing the era of Zoroaster many hundred, or even thousand, years before their own time. The judicious criticism of Mr. Moyle perceived, and maintained against his uncle, Dr. Prideaux, the antiquity of the Persian prophet. See his work, vol. ii.a

8 That ancient idiom was called the Zend. The language of the commentary, the Pehlvi, though much more modern, has ceased many ages ago to be a living tongue. This fact alone (if it is allowed as authentic) sufficiently warrants the antiquity of those writings which M. d'Anquetil has brought into Europe, and translated into French.b

a Zoroaster, called Zarathustra in the Zendavesta, and Zerdusht by the Persians, is universally represented as the founder of the Magian religion; but the most opposite opinions have been held both by ancient and modern writers respecting the time in which he lived. In the Zendavesta, Zarathustra is said to have lived in the reign of Vitaçpa, called Gushtasp by the Persians, who belonged to the dynasty of the Kâvja, or, as they are called in modern Persian, the Kayanians. This Gushtasp has been frequently identified with Darius Hystaspis; but a more critical examination of the Zendavesta has proved, almost beyond question, that the religion of Zarathustra arose in the eastern parts of Iran, in the countries of Margiana, Bactria, and Sogdiana, from whence it spread to the western districts of Iran. The date of the prophet cannot be assigned with certainty; but he must have lived before the Persian dynasty, perhaps about B.C. 800. See Lassen, Indische Alterthumskunde, vol. i. p. 752 seq.; Duncker, Geschichte des Alterthums, vol. ii. p. 307 seq.-S.

Both the Zend and the Pehlvi belong to the Indo-European family of languages. The Zend was spoken in the eastern part of Iran, and bears a close resemblance to the Sanscrit. The Pehlvi, which was the more modern form of the ancient Persian language, was spoken in the western parts of Iran in the times of the Arsacida and the Sassanidæ, and had received many Semitic forms from its proximity to the Semitic languages. The sacred books, which contained the religious system of Zoroaster, were written in Zend, and were called the Zendavesta. According to the tradition of the Parsees, they consisted originally of twenty-one books, but of these only the twentieth is now extant, called the Vendidad. Upon the restoration of the Persian religion by the Sassanide, the books of the Zendavesta were collected, and were then translated into Pellvi, the vernacular language of western Iran, since the Zend was then unintelligible to the people, and probably even to the priests. Anquetil du Perron, who first brought the Zendavesta to

riously explained the fundamental doctrines of their religion, and were all indifferently derided by a crowd of infidels, who rejected the divine mission and miracles of the prophet. To suppress the idolaters, reunite the schismatics, and confute the unbelievers by the infallible decision of a general council, the pious Artaxerxes summoned the Magi from all parts of his dominions. These priests, who had so long sighed in contempt and obscurity, obeyed the welcome summons; and on the appointed day appeared to the number of about eighty thousand. But as the debates of so tumultuous an assembly could not have been directed by the authority of reason, or influenced by the art of policy, the Persian synod was reduced, by successive operations, to forty thousand, to four thousand, to four hundred, to forty, and at last to seven Magi, the most respected for their learning and piety. One of these, Erdaviraph, a young but holy prelate, received from the hands of his brethren three cups of soporiferous wine. He drank them off, and instantly fell into a long and profound sleep. As soon as he waked he related to the king and to the believing multitude his journey to heaven, and his intimate conferences with the Deity. Every doubt was silenced by this supernatural evidence; and the articles of the faith of Zoroaster were fixed with equal authority and precision. A short delineation of that celebrated system will be found useful, not only to display the character of the Persian. nation, but to illustrate many of their most important transactions, both in peace and war, with the Roman empire.'

9

9 Hyde de Religione Veterum Pers. ch. 21.

10

10 I have principally drawn this account from the Zendavesta of M. d'Anquetil, and the Sadder, subjoined to Dr. Hyde's treatise. It must, however, be confessed that the studied obscurity of a prophet, the figurative style of the East, and the

Europe, made his translation from the Pehlvi; but portions of the Zendavesta have been published in the original by Burnouf at Paris, and Olshausen at Hamburg. It was long maintained, even by Oriental scholars, that the Zend was an invention of the Parsee priests; but the genuineness of the language, and its close connection with the Sanscrit, have been proved by Rask, Bohlen, Burnouf, and Bopp, and are now admitted by all Oriental scholars. See Rask, Ueber das Alter und die Echtheit der Zendsprache; Bohlen, de Origine Lingua Zendica; Burnouf, Commentaire sur le Yaçna (a portion of the Vendidad); Bopp, Vergleichende Grammatik; see also Kleuker, Anhang zum Zendavesta.-S.

Persian theology; two principles.

The great and fundamental article of the system was the celebrated doctrine of the two principles; a bold and injudicious attempt of Eastern philosophy to reconcile the existence of moral and physical evil with the attributes of a beneficent Creator and Governor of the world. The first and original Being, in whom, or by whom, the universe exists, is denominated, in the writings of Zoroaster, "Time without bounds;" but it must be confessed that this infinite substance seems rather a metaphysical abstraction of the mind than a real object endowed with selfconsciousness, or possessed of moral perfections. From either the blind or the intelligent operation of this infinite Time, which bears but too near an affinity with the Chaos of the Greeks, the two secondary but active principles of the universe were from all eternity produced, Ormusd and Ahriman, each of them possessed of the powers of creation, but each disposed, by his invariable nature, to exercise them with different designs. The principle of good is eternally absorbed in light the principle of evil eternally buried in darkness. The wise benevolence of Ormusd formed man capable of virtue, and abundantly provided his fair habitation with the materials of happiness. By his vigilant providence, the motion of the planets, the order of the seasons, and the temper

deceitful medium of a French or Latin version, may have betrayed us into error and heresy in this abridgment of Persian theology.

b

a This is not correct. The doctrine of "Time without bounds" (a translation of Zarvana akarane), as the first and original principle from which Ormusd and Ahriman were created, is not found in the Zendavesta. It was probably first introduced into the Persian religion through the influence of the Greek philosophy. In the Zendavesta the simple representation is, that all the good spirits are subject to Ahuramasda (Ormusd), and all the evil spirits to Angramainjus (Ahriman), and there is no notice whatsoever of those questions respecting the origin of evil which were so zealously discussed in the times of the Sassanida. The doctrine of "Time without bounds" is first mentioned by Theodorus, Bishop of Mopsucstia, who died A.D. 429, in a work on the Magian religion, in which he speaks of the "Zarouane" as the first principle among the Persians. (Phot. Cod. 81, p. 63, ed. Bekker.) From Oriental authorities we know that in the times of the Sassanidæ, and subsequently under the Arabs, there was a sect of the Magi which regarded the Zurvana as the original principle. See Duncker, Geschichte des Alterthums, vol. ii. p. 388.-S.

It is to be regretted that Gibbon followed the Sadder, which is certainly postMahometan. Hyde considered that it was written not more than 200 years before his time.-G. and M.

ate mixture of the elements are preserved. But the malice of Ahriman has long since pierced Ormusd's egg; or, in other words, has violated the harmony of his works. Since that fatal irruption the most minute articles of good and evil are intimately intermingled and agitated together; the rankest poisons spring up amidst the most salutary plants; deluges, earthquakes, and conflagrations attest the conflict of Nature; and the little world of man is perpetually shaken by vice and misfortune. Whilst the rest of humankind are led away captives in the chains of their infernal enemy, the faithful Persian alone reserves his religious adoration for his friend and protector Ormusd, and fights under his banner of light, in the full confidence that he shall, in the last day, share the glory of his triumph. At that decisive period the enlightened wisdom of goodness will render the power of Ormusd superior to the furious malice of his rival. Ahriman and his followers, disarmed and subdued, will sink into their native darkness; and virtue will maintain the eternal peace and harmony of the universe."1a

The theology of Zoroaster was darkly comprehended by foreigners, and even by the far greater number of his disciples; but the most careless observers were struck with the philosophic simplicity of the Persian worship. "That people," says Herodotus," "rejects the use of tem

Religions worship.

11 The modern Parsees (and in some degree the Sadder) exalt Ormusd into the first and omnipotent cause, whilst they degrade Ahriman into an inferior but rebellious spirit. Their desire of pleasing the Mahometans may have contributed to refine their theological system.

12 Herodotus, l. i. c. 131. But Dr. Prideaux thinks, with reason, that the use of temples was afterwards permitted in the Magian religion.b

a The fragments of the Zendavesta contain nothing respecting the final defeat of Ahriman and the future happiness of the world. But it is evident from the Greek writers that this doctrine formed part of the Persian system of religion even at an early period (Plutarch, de Iside, c. 47); and hence we may conclude either that it was contained in the lost books of Zoroaster, or that it belonged rather to the Medo-Persian than to the Bactrian system of religion.-S.

The fire temples, such as are now in use among the Parsees, are first mentioned by Strabo (xv. p. 732), and Pausanias (v. 27, § 5, 6). At a later period, according to Berosus (Fragm. 16, ed. Müller), the Persians began to worship statues of the gods in human form. The same writer relates that this custom was first introduced by Artaxerxes, the son of Ochus, who set up statues of Aphrodite Anaïtis in the chief cities of his dominions. Even in the existing monuments of

ples, of altars, and of statues, and smiles at the folly of those nations who imagine that the gods are sprung from, or bear any affinity with, the human nature. The tops of the highest mountains are the places chosen for sacrifices. Hymns and prayers are the principal worship; the Supreme God, who fills the wide circle of heaven, is the object to whom they are addressed." Yet, at the same time, in the true spirit of a polytheist, he accuses them of adoring Earth, Water, Fire, the Winds, and the Sun and Moon. But the Persians of every age have denied the charge, and explained the equivocal conduct which might appear to give a color to it. The elements, and more particularly Fire, Light, and the Sun, whom they called Mithra, were the objects of their religious reverence, because they considered them as the purest symbols, the noblest productions, and the most powerful agents of the Divine Power and Nature.1a

Ceremonies

precepts.

Every mode of religion, to make a deep and lasting impression on the human mind, must exercise our obedience by enjoining practices of devotion for which we can asand moral sign no reason, and must acquire our esteem by inculcating moral duties analogous to the dictates of our own hearts. The religion of Zoroaster was abundantly provided with the former, and possessed a sufficient portion of the latter. At the age of puberty the faithful Persian was invested with a mysterious girdle, the badge of the divine protection; and from that moment all the actions of his life, even the most indifferent or the most necessary, were sanctified by their peculiar prayers, ejaculations, or genuflections; the omission of which, under any circumstances, was a grievous sin, not inferior in guilt to the violation of the

13 Hyde de Relig. Pers. ch. 8. Notwithstanding all their distinctions and protestations, which seem sincerc enough, their tyrants, the Mahometans, have constantly stigmatized them as idolatrous worshippers of the fire.

Darius we find symbolical representations of the deity like the Assyrian. It is, however, certain that the worship of images was originally foreign to the Persian religion; but, surrounded as the western Iranians were by idolatrous nations, it is not impossible that they may to some extent have adopted this practice from their neighbors.-S.