time the encircling ligneous zone of radiating vessels becomes yet more developed, both in the number of its vessels and in the diameter of the cylinder relatively to that of the entire stem. As these changes are produced, the medullary rays separating the lamine of the woody wedges become more definite, some of them assuming a more composite structure, and the entire organisation gradually assuming a more exogenous type. At the same time the cortical portions retain all the essential features of the Lepidodendroid plants. We are thus brought, by the evidence of internal organisation, to the conclusion that the plants which Brongniart has divided into two distinct groups, one of which he has placed amongst the vascular Cryptogams, and the other amongst the Gymnospermous Exogens, constitute one great natural family. A destruction of the entire cylinder, and formed the mould into which inorganic materials have been introduced. On the other hand, the woody cylinder is the part most frequently preserved in Stigmaria; doubtless because, being subterranean, it was protected against the atmospheric action which destroyed so much of the stem. It is evident that all these Lepidodendroid and Sigillarian plants must be included in one common family, and that the separation of the latter from the former as a group of Gymnosperms, and as suggested by M. Brongniart, must be abandoned. The remark. able development of exogenous woody structures in most members of the entire family indicates the necessity of ceasing to apply either to them, or to their living representatives, the term Acrogenous. Hence the author proposes a division of the vascular Cryptogams into an Exogenous group, containing Lyco podiacea, Equisetacea, and the fossil Calamitace, and an Endogenous group containing the Ferns; the former uniting the Cryptogams with the Exogens through the Cycade and other Gymnosperms, and the latter linking them with the Endogens through the Palmacea. "Contributions to the History of the Opium Alkaloids. Part II. On the Action of Hydrobromic Acid on Codeia and its derivatives." By C. R. A. Wright, D.Sc. It has been shown in Part I. of this research that the action of hydrobromic acid on codeia gives rise, without evolution of methyl bromide, first to bromocodide, and secondly to two other new bases termed respectively deoxycodeia and bromotetracodeia, the latter of which, under the influence of hydrochloric acid, exchanges bromine for chlorine, yielding a corresponding chlorinated base, chlorotetracodeia; when, however, the action of hydrobromic acid is prolonged, methyl bromide is evolved in some little quantity. By digesting codeia with three or four times its weight of 48 per cent acid for five or six hours in the water-bath, vapours were evolved which, condensed by the application of a freezing-mixture to a colourless mobile liquid, the boiling-point of which was found to be 10°5 to 11°5, and the vapour of which burnt with a yellow-edged flame, exploded violently with oxygen, forming carbonic and hydrobromic acids. It becomes, therefore, of interest to examine in detail the action of hydrobromic acid on each of the three bodies produced from codeia under its influence. Stigmaria is shown to have been much misunderstood, so far as the details of its structure are concerned, especially of late years. In his memoir of Sigillaria elegans, published in 1839, M. Brongniart gave a description of it, which, though limited to a small portion of its structure, was, as far as it went, a remarkably correct one. The plant, now well known to be a root of Sigillaria, possessed a cellular pith without any trace of a distinct outer zone of medullary vessels, such as is universal amongst the Lepidodendra. The pith is immediately surrounded by a thick and well-developed ligneous cylinder, which contains two distinct sets of primary and secondary medullary rays. The primary ones are of large size, and are arranged in regular quincuncial order. They are composed of thick masses of mural cellular tissue. tangential section of each ray exhibits a lenticular outline, the long axis of which corresponds with that of the stem. These rays pass directly outwards from pith to bark, and separate the larger woody wedges which constitute so distinct a feature in all transverse sections of this zone, and each of which consists of aggregated lamine of barred vessels, disposed in very regular radiating series. The smaller rays consist of vertical piles of cells, arranged in single rows, and often consisting of but one, two, or three cells in each vertical series. These latter are very numerous and intervening between all the numerous radiating laminæ of vessels that constitute the larger wedges of woody tissue. The vessels going to the rootlets are not given off from the pith, as Goeppert supposed, but from the sides of the woody wedges bounding the upper part of the several large lenticular medullary rays; those of the lower portion of the ray taking no part in the constitution of the vascular bundles. The vessels of the region in question descend vertically and parallel to each other until they come in contact with the medullary ray, when they are suddenly deflected, in large numbers, in an outward direction, and nearly at right angles to their previous course, to reach the rootlets. But only a small number reach their destination, the great majority of the deflected vessels terminating in the woody zone. A very thick bark surrounds the woody zone. Immediately in contact with the latter it consists of a thin layer of delicate vertically elongated cellular tissue, in which the mural tissues of the outer extremities of the medullary rays become merged. Externally to this structure is a thick parenchyma, which quickly assumes a more or less prosenchyThe same doses of the morphia-salt given to a young kitten matous form, and becomes arranged in thin radiating laminæ, as it extends outwards. The epidermal layer consists of cellular produced the same flow of saliva, dilatation of pupils, and excitement (without vomiting); but the stage of excitement, parenchyma with vertically elongated cells at its inner surface, which feebly represents the bast-layer of the other forms of Lepi- followed by a condition marked by a want of co-ordination of which in adult cats passed gradually off in a few hours, was dodendroid plants. The rootlets consist of an outer layer of muscular movements, and presenting the most grotesque_re. parenchyma, derived from the epidermal parenchyma. Within semblance to certain stages of alcoholic intoxication. this is a cylindrical space, the tissue of which has always disap-stage was followed in turn by sleepiness and stupor, in peared. In the centre is a bundle of vessels surrounded by a cylinder of very delicate cellular tissue, prolonged either from one of the medullary rays, or from the delicate innermost layer of the bark, because it always accompanies the vessels in their progress outwards through the middle and outer barks. The facts of which the preceding is a summary lead to the conclusion that all the forms of plants described are but modifications of the Lepidodendroid type. The leaf-scars of the specimens so common in the coal-shales, represent tangential sections of the petioles of leaves when such sections are made close to the epidermal layer. The thin film of coal of which these leaf-scars consist, in specimens found both in sandstone and in shale, does not represent the entire bark as generally thought, and as is implied in the term “decorticated," usually applied to them, but is derived from the epidermal layer. In such specimens, all the more central axial structures, viz., the medulla, the wood, and the thick layer of true bark, have disappeared through decay, having been either destroyed, or in some instances detached and floated out; the bast-layer of the epiderm has arrested the 66 tives." By Michael Foster, M.D. The hydrochlorate of On the Physiological Action of the foregoing Codeia derivachlorotetracodeia and the hydrobromate of bromotetramorphia, in doses of a decigramme by subcutaneous injection or by the mouth, produced in adult cats in a very few delirium, accompanied by a copious flow of saliva and great minutes a condition of great excitement, almost amounting to dilatation of the pupils. Nicturation and de'æcation occurred in some instances, and vomiting was observed on two occasions with the morphia-salt, but was very slight. The excitement was very peculiar, being apparently due partly to increased sensitiveness to noises, and partly to an impulse to rush about. This which the kitten was left at night; in the morning it was found dead. Two observations have shown that these salts paralyse (in dogs and cats) the inhibitory fibres of the pneumogastric; they also seem to lower the internal tension, but want of material has prevented me from ascertaining how this is brought about. On rabbits neither salt, even in doses of a decigramme, seems to have any effect, except perhaps a slight excitement. There is no dilatation of the pupils, no flow of saliva, and, if one observation can be trusted, no paralysis of the inhibitory fibres of the pneumogastric. No marked difference was observable between the two salts, except that the morphia salts seemed rather more potent than the corresponding codeia bodies. The salts of deoxycodeia and deoxymorphia given by mouth or adult cats, almost immediately after exhibition, a series of conby subcutaneous injection in doses of a decigramme, produced in * Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. xix. p. 371 vulsions much more epileptic in character than tetanic. In one case there was a distinct rotatory movement. In a few minutes these convulsions passed away, leaving the animal exhausted and frightened. Then followed a stage of excitement with dilated pupils and flow of saliva, very similar to the effects of the tetracodeia and tetramorphia salts, but less marked. Doses of half a decigramme given to adult cats produced the stage of excitement only, without the convulsions. In no case, with any specimen of product, has vomiting been witnessed. Trials with rabbits gave only negative results. Like the tetracodeia and tetramorphia products, the deoxycodeia and deoxymorphia salts appear to paralyse the inhibitory fibres of the pneumogastric. No marked differences could be observed between the hydrochlorates and hydrobromates of deoxycodeia or deoxymorphia. "On the Calculation of Euler's Constant." By J. W. LI.. Glaisher, F. R.A.S. Zoological Society, June 20.-R. Hudson, F.R.S., vicepresident, in the chair. The Secretary read a report on the additions made to the Society's Menagerie during the month of May, 1871. Amongst these particular attention was called to a Tamandua Ant-eater (Tamandua tetradactyla) from Santa Martha, obtained by purchase, May 29, being the first specimen of the singular Mammal ever exhibited alive in the Society's collection. -Prof. Macdonald, of the University of St. Andrew's, Scotland, exhibited and made remarks on a series of specimens illustrative of the cranial bones of Fishes.-An extract was read from a letter received from Mr. Walter J. Scott, giving notice of a living specimen of the Australian Cassowary which had been lately captured in Queensland by Mr. Haig, and which Mr. Haig was anxious to present to the Society.-Prof. Newton exhibited and made remarks on some supposed eggs of the Sanderling (Calidris arenaria), procured by the North German Polar Expedition.-A communication was read from the Rev. O. P. Cambridge, containing notes on the Arachnida collected by Dr. Cuthbert Collingwood during his recent travels in the Chinese seas.-A communication was read from Dr. John Anderson, Curator of the Indian Museum, Calcutta, containing notes on some rare species of Rodents collected by Mr. Forsyth during his recent expedition to Yarkand.-Messrs. Sclater and Salvin read a revised List of the species of Laride which have been found to occur within the limits of the Neotropical region. These were stated to be 32 in number, whereof one belonged to the sub-family Rhynchopinæ, 14 to the Sterninæ, 16 to the Larinæ, and one to the Lestridine. -A communication was read from Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., containing notes on the Bush-bucks (Cephalophi) contained in the collection of the British Museum, together with the descriptions of two new species of the genus from the Gaboon.-A second communication from Dr. J. E. Gray contained some notes on the skull of a roebuck in the British Museum, originally received from the Museum of the Zoological Society of London. -Mr. Sylvanus Hanley communicated the description of a new species of Monocondylea from Sarawak, Borneo, which he proposed to call M. Walpolei.-Mr. D. G. Elliot read a review of the genus Ptiloris, Sw. Mr. D. G. Elliot also read a description of a supposed new species of Guinea-fowl from Ugogo, Central Africa, founded on airawing made by Colonel Grant during the expedition of Messrs. Speke and Grant, which he proposed to name Numida Granti. — Mr. K. B. Sharpe read a paper on the Birds of Cameroons, Western Africa, based upon collections recently formed by Mr. A. Crossley in that locality. The Avi-Fauna of the country was shown to be almost identical with that of Gaboon. A species of Thrush was believed to be new to science, and was proposed to be called Turdus Crossleyi.-Mr. John Brazier communicated some notes on the localities of Dolium melanostoma, Conus rhododendron, and other species of land-shells found in Australia and in the adjacent islands of the Australian seas.-Mr. W. Saville Kent read a paper on two new Sponges from North Australia, the principal peculiarity of which consisted of their being arranged round a central stem or axis. These he referred to a new genus proposed to be called Caulispongia. - Prof. Flower communicated a paper by Mr. J. B. Perrin on the myology of the limbs of the Kinkajou (Cercoleptes caudivolvulus), to which were added some remarks on the myology of the limbs of the Paradoxurus typus and Felis caracal, and more particularly with reference to the chief points of difference between these animals. BRISTOL Observing Astronomical Society.-Observations to May 31, 1871. The Sun. -Mr. T. W. Backhouse writes that on March 19 at 21h. 30m. a spot on the sun's S. hemisphere had an umbra 19,000 miles long, but its greatest width was but 3,500 miles. This spot passed the centre of the sun on the 21st. On the 22nd at 3h. there was a curious curve of numerous small spots starting from it. An extensive group which passed N. of the sun's centre on the 23rd contained on the 27th at 5h. the largest spot then on the sun. Its penumbra was 29,000 miles in diameter, and its umbra 14,000 miles long; yet if it existed at all on the 24th at 21h. it must have been quite small. A spot in the sun's S. hemisphere which passed the middle of the sun on April 11, and which was not large on the 6th, on the 7th at 21h. 35m. had a penumbra 63,000 miles long. On the 9th at 21h. 15m. it was about 41,000 miles long, and its chief umbra 13,000 miles in diameter, and mostly of a light shade. On April 20 at 21h. 45h. a spot also in the southern zone had an umbra 25,500 miles long; but its part was very narrow, its part was very irregular. Its part became broader, and on the 24th at 20h. was separated from the part. The umbra had previously shortened, being only about 21,000 miles long on the 23rd; at 21h. on the 23rd it passed the same centre. On the 28th at 3h. 20m. the penumbra was 38,000 miles long. At that time there was another large solar spot also in the S. zone, which had a penumbra 33,000 miles in diameter then; but on May 4 at 5h. 15m. it was 43,000 miles long and 35,000 miles wide, and it is now (May 8) larger still. Its umbra was roundish and much mottled, and on May 4 at 4h. was 17,000 miles long and 14,500 wide. On the 5th at 21h., however, there was a very slender bridge of light across it towards the southern part, and another farther north two-thirds across it. The latter still remains (May 8, 3h. 30m.), and nearly cuts the umbra in two; but the former has disappeared. Mr. Albert P. Holden, of London, reports as follows:-" April 10, 1871. A large spot, surrounded by an extensive penumbra, has recently appeared, which I observed at 2h. this day. The chief spot was rather long and narrow, except at one end, which was considerably wide, and the narrow portion was crossed by three complete (and one partial) bridges. The penumbra was unusually pale, and the umbra of a decided light-brown hue. In the upper part of the broad portion of the umbra was a large nucleus intensely black, and so large and dark as to be visible with a very low power. Almost joining the 'yawning gulf' of the nucleus was a light triangular patch, not quite so light as the penumbra. From the great ease with which the nuclei have been seen on this and other occasions it would seem as if they increased in visibility with the approach of the maxima of the sun-spot period. When they are visible, as on the present occasion, the windward penumbra of the spot in which they occur are always unusually light in colour."Mr. William F. Denning, of Bristol, observed the sun with his 10țin., and 4in. reflector on May 26, but with the exception of a large scattered group the spots were neither large nor interesting. With a Jupiter-Mr. Albert P. Holden says: "On February 20 at 7h. 30m. I observed this planet, and found the usual equatorial belts to present a most remarkable appearance. The whole equator was covered by what appeared to be great masses of clouds stretching across the planet in four parallel, but rather irregular, rows, each row containing about four or five distinct masses of cloud. As I was using a diagonal eyepiece I thought at first the mirror had become covered with moisture, but found the phenomenon to be really on the planet's surface. low power the whole equator had a mottled appearance, but higher powers brought out the masses of cloud very distinctly. The clouds coming over prevented my observing whether the rotation of the planet would change the scenery of the disc at all." Edmund Neison, of London, writes with regard to Jupiter : "The only result worth mentioning is the gradual deepening of the tinge of the equatorial belts and the increase in the general orange tinge of the whole disc. In fact, on May 15 it appeared to have changed to a distinct red. This is probably due merely to the low altitude of the planet, and its immersion in the orange mists of sub-sunset." Mars. Mr. Albert P. Holden, with his 3in. refractor, has ob tained some very good views of this planet. He writes: "The Kaiser Sea and Dawes Ocean come out very distinctly. This planet seems to bear magnifying much more readily than other ob jects, eighty to the inch of aperture giving most excellent views." PARIS Academie des Sciences, June 19.-M. Claude Bernard in the chair. M. Claude Bernard read a letter from Mr. Alexander Herschel, noticing the death of his father on behalf of himself and of his eldest brother now in India. The lamented Sir John Herschel was the senior foreign associate member of the Institute. The foreign associate members are only five in number; it is considered the highest honour the Academy can offer to a foreigner. The President noticed also the death of the celebrated General Probert, who was an academician of long standing, and had devoted his whole life to the study of projectiles. His memoirs are numerous in the Comptes Rendus, but more numerous at the War Office. He was of opinion that the Prussian steel gun should be adopted by the French artillery, but his Imperial Majesty being a great artillerist, his opinion was totally disregarded. The vacancies to be filled amongst members and associates are now six. They have never been so numerous. There were twelve correspondents to elect before the investment of Paris took place. M. Dumas presented a memoir on the reciprocal action of magnetism and electricity circulating in a vacuum. The memoir was written by M. De La Rive, a foreign associate member of the Academy, and describes experiments tried with an apparatus analogous to the magnificent instruments exhibited by M. De La Rive at the "Champ de Mars" universal exhibition.— M. Elie de Beaumont, the other perpetual secretary, has directed public attention to the extraordinary cold experienced on the 18th May and 3rd June 1871, and asked for observations relating to it. Every information must be directed to him, and will be mentioned in the Comptes Rendus. Several other communications are duly acknowledged, and will be printed. Some of them relate to other severe depressions of temperature witnessed late in the season in former years; hoar frost was observed as late as in July 1802, which appears to have been one of the worst years ever known for low temperature in the summer.-M. Grèmand de Lany, the senior member of the Scientific Staff of the Parisian papers, has published an interesting book on the Academy of Sciences during the siege of Paris, giving a fair idea of the amount of work executed by members resident in Paris during that eventful period of its annals. The Academy has to appoint a committee for reporting upon the memoirs sent to compete for the great prize of mathematics proposed by the govern ment. The subject proposed belongs to the theory of elliptical functions. No qualification of nationality is required. The names of the competitors are kept sealed and opened only if successful. MM. Bertrand, Hermite, Serret, Leonville, and Bonner were appointed.-A most interesting discussion took place on a paper relating to the treatment of typhus during the Mexican campaign, showing that typhus is unquestionably contagious, as well as many other diseases of the same kind. The cold and moisture is not so much to be feared as stagnant hospital air, and treatment under canvas even in cold weather is perhaps the best that can be imagined.-M. Campion, the first assistant to M. Payen, presented a memoir on the manner of blasting rocks with dynamite. That paper is a kind of résumé of M. Campion's experiments during the first investment of Paris. He was closely engaged in dangerous operations, practised for protecting the town. According to every probability, he will be appointed a member to fill the chair of his professor. -Five or six other papers were read, too long to report. VIENNA T. Niedzwiedski is the occurrence of Trinkerite at Gams, near Hieflau, in Styria. This fossil resin, which contains more than 4 per cent. of sulphur, was first described a few months ago by Dr. Tschermak, of Carpano, in Istria, where it was found in a coal of Eocene age. At Gams it is imbedded in a dark coloured rock, which belongs to the Gasau (Upper Cretaceous) formation.-Prof. E. Suess on the Tertiary land fauna of middle Italy. The study of the rich collections of fossil mammalia in the museums in Pisa and Florence enabled the author to parallelise the different fauna of the Upper Tertiary beds of middle Italy, which had been distinguished quite correctly by Falconer, Lartet, &c., with those of Austria. The first mammalian fauna of the Vienna Basin, the fauna of Eibiswald, with Amphicyon intermediaries, Hyotherium Sommeringi, Palæomerix, Crocodilus, Trionyx, &c., is represented in Italy by the fauna of the lignites of Monte Bamboli, The second fauna of the Vienna Basin, the fauna of Eppelsheim with Mastodon longirostris, Hippotherium gracile, &c., is not yet known in Italy. The fauna of the Arno Valley, on the contrary, which is represented in a marvellous richness in the museum of Florence, seems to be wanting in the Vienna Basin. This third fauna is characterised by Elephas meridionalis, Machairodus, Bos etruscus, Hippopotamus major, &c. ; traces of it M. Suess thinks he has recognised in some fossils from the caverns of the Karst (Istria). The fourth fauna, with Elephas primigenius which is to be found everywhere in our loess, has been discovered also in some localities of Tuscany in the socalled Pauchina, a clay similar to the loess.-M. Schwackhofer exhibited a series of rocks rich in phosphoric acid, which occur in the Silurian, as well as in the Cretaceous beds of Eastern Gallicia, the discovery of which he hopes will be of great use for agricultural purposes. AMERICAN-The Monthly Reports of the Department of Agriculture for 1868-69; The Annual Report of the Commission of Agriculture, 1868; The Annual Report of the US. Department of Agriculture, 1862: Government Printing Office, Washington.-The Elements of Physics: Prof. Hinrichs FOREIGN. Die Pflanzenstoffe, &c.: Drs. A. and Th. Husemann (Schluss), -Through Williams and Norgate) - Discussion der während der totale Sonnenfinsterniss am August 1868 angestellten Beobachtungen und der daraus folgenden Ergebnisse: Prof. E. Weiss.-Elektrodynamische Mass-bestummungen: W. Weber.-Physische Zusammenkünfte der Planeten: C. von Littrow. DIARY MONDAY, JULY 3. ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 7. GEOLOGISTS ASSOCIATION, at 8.-On the Upper Limits of the Devonian CONTENTS RAMBLES ROUND LONDON. The Eclipse Photographs.-D. WINSTANLEY. Black Rain.-E. LEE, F.L.S. A New View of Darwinism.-HENRY H. HOWORTH Ocean Currents.-J. K. LAUGHTON Alpine Floras.-J. J. MURPHY, F G.S.. A Suggestion.-Lieut. S. P. Oliver, R.A HYDROUS SILICates Injecting THE PORRS OF FOSSILS. By Principal NEW THEORY OF SUN-SPOTS. By J. BIRMINGHAM THE CHESTNUT TREE OF MOUNT ETNA, (With Illustration) I. R. Geological Institution, May 2.-Dr. Gümbel, of Munich, gave an account of his investigations of the different forms of Dactylopora, found chiefly in the Triassic limestones of the Alps. Notwithstanding some differences in the structure, he recognised in them a strong resemblance to living and tertiary Dactylopora. Great and constant varieties in the forms led him to distinguish a large number of different species. Mr. F. Pick, who had visited the Isle of Milo in the month of March, made a report of the numerous earthquakes which had been observed there since the beginning of the year. From the middle of January up to the month of March they continued incessantly, and during the time between the last days of February till the 3rd March more than twenty shocks were felt daily, not seldom two or three in one hour. The St. George volcano on Santorin was seen on March 20 in continuous, but feeble activity.-M. v. Lill discovered the rare Ullmannite (Nickel-Antimon-Pyrites) at a new locality in Carinthia, the Rinkenberg, near Bleiburg, where it is imbedded in slaty schists and crystalline dolomite.Another mineralogical discovery of interest communicated by DIARY NOTES SCIENCE IN AMERICA MR. BENTHAM'S ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS TO THE LINNEAN SOCIETY (Continued) ASTRONOMY.-On the Great Sun-Spot of June, 1843 By Prof. D. KIRKWOOD SCIENTIFIC Serials SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. BOOKS RECEIVED PAGE 157 138 159 160 160 160 160 161 101 162 162 162 163 170 172 . 173 173 176 176 THE THURSDAY, JULY 6, 1871 SENSATION AND SCIENCE HE morbid craving for excitement, which is characteristic of mental indolence, as well as of effete civilisation, has led to the introduction of Sensation (as it is commonly called), not merely into our newspapers and novels, but even into our pulpits. It could not be expected that our popular scientific lectures would long escape the contamination. We have watched with regret its gradual introduction and development, and have often meditated an article on the subject. But now, when a splendid opportunity has come, we feel how unfit we are for the task. None but a Spurgeon can effectively criticise a Spurgeon; none but a Saturday Reviewer could be expected to tackle with delicacy and yet with vigour the gifted author of the "Girl of the Period." So we must content ourselves with the spectacle of the Rev. Prof. Haughton as criticised by himself. We have not been able to attend his recent lectures at the Royal Institution, but we have it on excellent authority that they were racy (ie, sensational) in the extreme. Happily we find in the British Medical Journal what is described as an authorised version of them. A few extracts from this will enable us to dispense with a great deal of comment. We shall first take the Science, and then permit the Sensation to speak for itself. Prof. Haughton's subject is The Principle of Least Action in Nature; and we are told that he believes he has succeeded in discovering in this the true principle on which the Science of Animal Mechanics must be founded, and has been enabled to sketch out the broad outlines of its foundation. Maupertuis's Principle of Least Action is indeed "well known to mathematicians," but is by no means easy of explanation to the ordinary reader. We can, therefore, sympathise with the lecturer in his repeated failures to make it intelligible. But we cannot admit any justification of the constant use of the same words, sometimes in one sense, sometimes in a totally different one. To a mathematician (Prof. Haughton speaks as at once mathematician, anatomist, medical man, natural philosopher, "expert" at shot-drill, the crank, and the treadmill, clergyman, &c., &c., and even as potential farmer and landlord shooter!) we should have thought that, when once x, y, z, or whatever else, is introduced, it has and continues to have a definite meaning, until in a new problem it comes to be applied to something possibly quite different. How then can we account for such sentences as the following ? "The great problem-the problem of doing a given amount of work with a minimum of effort." "Nature aims at producing a given quantity of work with the least quantity of material." "I could show that these [tendons of the legs and arms of animals] are constructed with a wonderful economy of force of the same kind as that with which the bee constructs its cell" "By what force, or by what intelligence, do the limbs of animals describe their proper path? Who places the VOL. IV. socket of each joint in the exact position (which can be calculated with unerring certainty by mathematics) which enables the muscle to perform its allotted task with the least amount of trouble to itself?" "The Principle of Least Action is that the arrangement and mutual position of all muscular fibres, bones, and joints must be such as to produce the required effect with the minimum amount of muscular tissue.” "Before proceeding to apply this principle of least action or least trouble to nature," &c. In all these extracts the italics are ours. If the reader but glance them over, he will not require to read the lectures to see what a very Proteus is this so-called principle. There is no knowing where to have it. It is a minimum, an economy, a least quantity, and what not; sometimes of effort, sometimes of material, then of trouble, and anon of muscular tissue, or of force of the same kind as that with which the bee constructs its cell! But the most curious feature about it is that in none of its metamorphoses does it in the slightest degree resemble the least action of Maupertuis, with which it would seem throughout to be held as identical. Even in his remarks on this perfectly definite mathematical question, Prof. Haughton commits a grave error, for he says: "If I take the points A and B in the planet's path, S representing the sun, I only require to know those points A and B, and the sun S, to calculate for you, from the Principle of Least Action-which I can do to the millionth part of an inch at each point of this orbit-the path that the planet must describe, on the supposition that it is a lazy, intelligent animal, trying to swim round the sun in such a manner as to give the least trouble to itself." action can tell us, is that, supposing the sun's attraction It seems to us that all that the principle of least to vary inversely as the square of the distance, the planet will describe some conic section or other, whose focus is S, and which passes through A and B. Which ditions, ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola (or possibly circle) it will be of the innumerable conics satisfying these conthere is nothing to indicate, within quadrillions of miles inch!! As to what a "lazy, intelligent animal" (of -yet we are told it can be done to the millionth of an course, not acted on by gravity) would do in "trying to swim [in what?] round the sun," we unfortunately possess no information. But this is merely another proof that we are dealing with Sensation where we looked for Science. Here we have caught our instructor in a palpable and inexcusable blunder, and we could easily point out many others of a similar kind in his remarks on light, &c. It is not so easy to do so, or rather to make the general reader aware that we have done so, when he leaves strictly mathematical applications, and plunges headlong into a wild sea of speculation without previous careful definition of his terms. These terms are, in fact, as he employs them, so elastic, that it is only by contrasting (as we did above) portions of his lectures with other portions in which the same words acquire other and different meanings, or in which different words are employed for the same meaning, that we see how excessively loose and slipshod is the whole affair. Another little group of quotations will admirably illustrate this :— "The law of least action is attended to in every L department of nature down to the most minute details. Not even one grain of material is ever used, when less would suffice for the purpose." This is, no doubt, admirable, and would suit the most frantic of the mischief-making teleologists. But, alas! like the Editor of the Little Pedlington Observer, "What in one line we state we retract in another." For there follows "We can demonstrate by mathematics that in the use of every such muscle [triangular, &c.] there is a necessary loss of force. I have always maintained that beauty of form was one of the pre-existing conditions in the mind of the Contriver of the universe, as well as economy of force." As intermediate to these two quotations, and in itself amusing from its bonhommie and condescension, we may take the following: "Nature, according to my principle, is entitled to employ these two forms of muscles whenever she pleases." The reader may take our word that these are but single gems, selected from among many similar and often richer ones, mainly on the Principle of Least Trouble (in copying out for press). As to really scientific matters, occasionally referred to in these lectures, we need merely mention that the author is ignorant of, or ignores, Dr. Pettigrew's extraordinary researches on wings and other adaptations for progression; researches which ought to be thoroughly mastered by any one who attempts to write on the subject of animal mechanics; and that, in his remarks on the strength of the uterine muscles, he seems to have entirely forgotten to notice how thoroughly least action theories (at least as applied by him) have been upset in a late number of the Dublin Quarterly Journal of Medical Science. We promised Science first and Sensation afterwards. In attempting to collect the Science we have got hold of little but Sensation: so we need give only one extract more. Would it have been considered possible (till the 23rd of last May) that a Dublin professor, an M.D., a D.C.L., an F.R. S., and a clergyman of the (till lately) Established Church, should, even in jest, speak as follows in the Royal Institution in London ?— . . A brilliant idea came across my mind What in the world is to hinder me from taking a farm in Westmeath, deliberately and wilfully refusing to pay my rents, and in due time shooting my landlord, and, instead of using him as a New Zealand tenant would, dissecting him at my leisure?" We have only to add that the British Medical Journal, in publishing the above, conspicuously prints the remark : "In reproducing the ipsissima verba of the lecturer, and giving them a permanent place in scientific literature, an enduring service will be rendered to Science." Which means, we hope, that all men, scientific or otherwise, will, once for all, take warning from this terrible example. If such be the result, Prof. Haughton will, indeed, not have lectured in vain. But if the British Medical Journal intends its remarks to signify approval, we can say of it and of Prof. Haughton, in the language of Cervantes No rebuznaron en valde El uno y el otro Alcalde. BASTIAN ON THE ORIGIN OF LIFE The Modes of Origin of Lowest Organisms: including a Discussion of the Experiments of M. Pasteur, and a Reply to some Statements by Professors Huxley and Tyndall. By H. Charlton Bastian, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., &c. (Macmillan and Co., 1871.) IT T may be as well to state at the outset that the present volume is not Dr. Bastian's long-promised work on "The Beginnings of Life ;" and it would have been better had some title been devised to prevent the confusion that will inevitably be caused by its appearance at this juncture. We have here, however, a condensed sketch of the whole controversy on Spontaneous Generation, and a statement of some very important researches conducted by the author since the discussion which followed Prof. Huxley's Presidential Address at Liverpool last September. It will be remembered that the objections to Dr. Bastian's experiments and to the results he deduced from them were twofold. It was said that we have no proof that these minute organisms (Bacteria, &c.), or their germs cannot resist the heat to which they were subjected. It was also said that no proof was given that the supposed organisms found by Dr. Bastian in these boiled and hermetically sealed liquids were alive. The motions exhibited might be "Brownian " motions, and the experimenter probably found nothing in his vessels but what he put into them. The answer to these objections is now given. The test of vitality is said to be, not movement, which is admitted to be uncertain, but the power of reproduction. It is found that if a portion of liquid containing Bacteria is divided into two parts, one of which is boiled, and a drop from each of these portions is mounted as a microscopic object, under a covering glass surrounded by quickly-drying cement, the unboiled specimen exhibits a marked increase from day to day in the quantity of imprisoned Bacteria, while the boiled specimen continues unchanged during the same time. Making use of this test of vitality, it was next ascertained what degree of heat was fatal to these low organisms. By using a lower and lower temperature, it was found that exposure to 140° F. for ten minutes destroyed Bacteria, while after exposure to 131° F. for the same time they rapidly multiplied. Somewhat higher organisms-Vibrios, Amaba, Monads, Vorticella, &c., were, however, killed by exposure to 131° F. for five minutes. It was subsequently ascertained that a four hours' exposure to a temperature of even 127° F. destroyed Bacteria and Torula. argued that, as in all these experiments the solutions used swarmed with Bacteria, &c., in various stages of increase, their hypothetical "germs" cannot be supposed to have been entirely absent; and that we may therefore conclude that the "germ" has no greater power of resisting heat than the animal itself. It is |