He feels no ennobling principle in his own heart, who wishes to level all the artificial institutions which have been adopted for giving a body to opinion, and permanence to fugitive esteem. Burke. ART has been more particularly defined to be a habit of the mind prescribing rules for the due production of certain effects; or the introducing the changes of bodies from some fore-knowledge and design in a person endued with the principle or faculty of acting. The word has been sometimes derived from apog, utility, profit; and is found in that sense in Eschylus.

According to lord Bacon it is a proper disposition of the things of nature by human thought and experience, so as to make them answer the designs and uses of mankind. Nature, according to that philosopher, is sometimes free, and at her own disposal; and then she manifests herself in a regular order; as we see in the heavens, plants, animals, &c.-Sometimes she is irregular and disorderly either through some uncommon accident or depravation in matter, when the resistance of some impediment perverts her from her course; as in the production of monsters. At other times she is subdued and fashioned by human industry, and made to serve the several purposes of mankind. This last is what we call art. In which sense, art stands opposed to nature. Hence the knowledge of nature may be divided into the history of generation, of pretergeneration, and of arts. The first considers nature at liberty; the second her errors; and the third her

restraints.

Art has been distinguished from science; by the latter being regarded as furnishing the principles of all art. Ör science, scientia, all human knowledge, is said to be divisible into those purer sciences which relate to the ideas or laws of the mind, and the relation they bear to each other; and the mixed or applied sciences-that relation which the same ideas bear to the external world. In this view the mixed and applied sciences are but other terms for all the fine and useful arts. Chambers has observed long ago, in the excellent preface to his original Cyclopædia: An Art and a Science, only seem to differ as less and more pure: a science is a system of deductions made by reason alone, undetermined by any thing foreign or extrinsic to itself: an art, on the contrary, requires a number of data, and postulata, to be furnished from without; and never goes any length, without at every turn needing new ones. It is, in one sense, the knowledge and perception of these data that constitutes the art; the rest, that is, the doctrinal part, is of the nature of science; which attentive reason alone will descry. An art, in this light, appears to be a portion of science, or general knowledge, considered, not in itself as science, but with relation to its circumstances or appendages. In a science the mind looks directly backwards and forwards to the premises and conclusions in an art we also look laterally to the concomitant circumstances. A science, in effect, is that to an art, which a stream running in a direct channel, without regard to any thing but its own progress, is to the same stream turned out of its proper course, and disposed into cascades, jets, cisterns, ponds, &c. In

which case the progress of the stream is not considered with regard to itself, but only as it concerns the works; every one of which modifies the course of the stream, and leads it out of its way. It is easy to trace the progress of the former, from its issue, as it flows consequentially; but a man ever so well acquainted with this will not be able to discover that of the latter, because it depends on the genius, humor, and caprice of the engineer who laid the design.'

The learned author of Hermes says, If it be asked, What art is; we have to answer, 'It is an habitual power in man, of becoming the cause of some effect, according to a system of various and well-approved precepts.' If it be asked, On what subject art operates; we can answer, On a contingent, which is within the reach of the human powers to influence.' If it be asked, For what reason, for the sake of what, art operates; we may reply, For the sake of some absent good, relative to human life, and attainable by man, but superior to his natural and uninstructed faculties.' Lastly, if it be asked, Where it is the operations of art end?' We may say, Either in some energy, or in some work.' Harris's Three Treatises, dialogue i.

Arts are properly divided into liberal and mechanical:

ARTS, LIBERAL, or POLITE, are those that are noble or ingenious, and worthy of being cultivated for their own sake, without any immediate regard to any pecuniary emolument. Such as depend more on the imagination, or on the labor of the mind, than on that of the hand; or that consist more in speculation than operation, and have a greater regard to amusement and curiosity than necessity. Such are poetry, music, painting, grammar, rhetoric, the military art, architecture, and navigation. They were formerly to be summed up in the following Latin

verse:

Lingua, Tropus, Ratio, Numerus, Tonus, Angulus, Astra.

In the eighth century the whole circle of sciences was composed of the seven liberal arts, as they were called; viz. grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy; the three former of which were distinguished by the title of trivium, and the four latter by that of quadrivium.

ARTS, MECHANICAL, are those wherein the hand and body are more concerned than the mind; and which are chiefly cultivated for the sake of the profit attending them. Of which kind are most of those which furnish us with the necessaries of life, and are popularly known by the name of trades and manufactures. Such are weaving, turnery, brewing, masonry, clockmaking, carpentry, joinery, foundry, printing, &c. These arts, which indeed are innumerable, were formerly comprised in this verse: Rus, Nemus, Arma, Faber, Vulnera, Lana, Kates. They take their denomination from unxavn, machine, as being all practised by means of some machine or instrument. With the liberal arts it is otherwise; there being several of them which may be learnt and practised without any

As all arts have this common property according to Mr. Harris, that they respect human life, it is evident that some contribute to its necessities, as medicine and agriculture; and others to its elegance, as music, painting, and poetry. The former seem to have been prior in time to the latter. Men must naturally have consulted how to live and to support themselves, before they began to deliberate how to render life agreeable. Indeed this is confirmed by fact; as no nation has been known so barbarous and ignorant as not in some degree to have cultivated the rudiments of these necessary arts; and hence possibly they may appear to be more excellent and worthy, as having claim to a preference derived from their seniority. The arts, however, of elegance are not destitute of pretensions, if it be true that nature formed us for something more than mere existence. Nay farther, if wellbeing be clearly preferable to mere being, and this, without the other, be contemptible, they may have reason perhaps to aspire even to a superiority. Harris, ubi supra, p. 54.

The history of the origin and progress of particular arts is recited under their respective denominations in the course of this work. It may be here observed however, in general, that most of the arts that are necessary to the subsistence, or conducive to the convenience and comfort of mankind, have had a very early origin.

Some useful arts must be nearly coeval with the human race; for food, clothing, and habitation, even in their original simplicity, require some art. Many others are of such antiquity as to place the inventors beyond the reach of tradition. Several have gradually crept into existence without any recorded inventor or history. The busy mind, however, accustomed to a beginning in all things, cannot rest till it finds or imagines a beginning to every art.

It has been generally admitted that the arts had their rise in the East, and that they were conveyed from thence to the Greeks, and from them to the Romans. The Romans, indeed, seem to have been chiefly indebted to the Greeks, by whom they were excelled in point of invention. The Romans acknowledged this superiority, for they sent their youth to Greece in order to finish their education; and from this circumstance we may infer, that they considered that country as the seat of the arts and sciences, and as a school where genius would be excited by the most finished models, and the taste corrected and formed. Pliny and other writers have, nevertheless, given hints which lead us to believe that the Romans possessed a more extensive knowledge of the arts than modern writers are sometimes willing to allow; and that several inventions re garded as recent are only old ones revived and again applied to practice. The dark ages at once

extinguished the knowledge of the past, and retarded the revival of art; yet it cannot be denied, that several important discoveries altogether unknown to the ancients were made in those ages. Of this kind were the inventions of paper, painting in oil, the mariner's compass, gunpowder, printing, and engraving on copper: see the several articles. After the invention of the compass and printing, two grand sources were opened for the improvement of science. As navigation was extended, new objects were discovered to awaken the curiosity and excite the attention of the learned; and the ready means of diffusing knowledge afforded by the press, enabled the ingenious to make them publicly known. Ignorance and superstition, the formidable enemies of philosophy in every age, began to lose some of that power which they had usurped, and different states, forgetting their former blind policy, adopted improvements which their prejudices had before condemned.

In countries, however, where civil and ecclesiastical tyranny prevailed, the progress of the useful and elegant arts was slow, and struggled with many difficulties. Particular events, indeed, have occurred in all ages and nations which have roused the exertions of genius, and furnished occasion for making important and useful discoveries. The history of Greece and Rome, and even of modern Europe, will afford many obvious facts that confirm and illustrate this observation. We can add but a few other miscellaneous ones.

In different countries the progress of the same arts has been extremely different. Though the compass was used in China for navigation long before it was known in Europe, yet to this day, instead of suspending it in order to make it act freely, it is placed upon a bed of sand, by which every motion of the ship disturbs its operation. Water-mills for grinding corn are described by Vitruvius, and wind-mills were known in Greece and in Arabia as early as the seventh century; yet no mention is made of them in Italy till the fourteenth; and that they were not known in England in the reign of Henry VIII. appears from a household book of the Northumberland family, stating an allowance for three mill-horses,

two to draw in the mill, and one to carry stuff to the mill and fro.' Water-mills for corn must in England have been of a late date. The ancients had mirror-glasses, and employed glass to imitate crystal vases and goblets; yet they never thought of using it in windows. In the thirteenth century, the Venetians were the only people who had the art of making crystal glass for mirrors. A clock that strikes the hours was unknown in Europe till the end of the twelfth century. And hence the custom of employing men to proclaim the hours during night; which to this day continues in Germany, Flanders, and England. Galileo was the first who conceived an idea that a pendulum might be useful for measuring time; and Huygens was the first who put the idea in execution, by making a pendulum clock. Hook, in 1660, invented a spiral spring for a watch, though a watch was far from being a new invention. Paper was made no earlier than the fourteenth century; and the invention of printing was a century later. Silk manufactures were

long established in Greece before silk-worms were introduced there. The manufacturers were provided with raw silk from Persia: but that commerce being frequently interrupted by war, two monks, in the reign of Justinian, brought eggs of the silk-worm from Hindostan, and taught their countrymen the method of managing them.-The art of reading made a very slow progress. To encourage that art in England, the capital punishment for murder was remitted, if the criminal could but read, which in law language is termed benefit of clergy. One would imagine that the art must have made a very rapid progress when so greatly favored: but there is a signal proof of the contrary; for so small an edition of the Bible as 600 copies, translated into English in the reign of Henry VIII. was not wholly sold off in three years. And the people of England must have been profoundly ignorant in Queen Elizabeth's time, when a forged clause added to the twentieth article of the established creed passed unnoticed till about a century ago. The circumstances which arouse the national spirit upon any particular art, promote activity to prosecute other arts. When the Romans came to excel in the art of war, they rapidly improved in other arts. Nævius composed in verse seven books of the Punic war; besides comedies, replete with bitter raillery against the nobility. Ennius wrote annals, and an epic poem; and Lucius Andronicus became the father of dramatic poetry in Rome. And the Roman genius for the fine arts was much inflamed by Greek learning when free intercourse between the two nations was opened.

The progress of art seldom fails to be rapid, when a people happen to be roused out of a torpid state by some fortunate change of circumstances: public liberty now gives to the mind a spring which is vigorously exerted in every new pursuit. The Athenians made but a mean figure under the tyranny of Pisistratus; but, upon regaining their freedom and independence, arts flourished with arms, and Athens became the chief theatre for science as well as for the fine arts. The reign of Augustus Cæsar, which put an end to the rancor of civil war, and restored peace to Rome with the comforts of society, proved an auspicious era for literature; and produced a cluster of Latin historians, poets, and philosophers, to whom the moderns are indebted for their taste. A similar revolution happened in Tuscany about 350 years ago. That country having been divided into a number of small republics, the people excited by mutual petty quarrels, became ferocious and bloody, flaming with revenge for the slightest offence. But being united under the Great Duke of Tuscany, these republics enjoyed the sweets of peace and a mild government; when the retrospect of recent calamities roused the national spirit, and produced ardent application to arts and literature. The restoration in England in 1660, which put an end to an envenomed civil war, promoted improvements of every kind, and arts and industry made a rapid progress. Had the nation, upon that favorable turn of fortune, been blessed with a succession of able and virtuous princes, arts and sciences might much earlier have flourished

in their modern perfection. Some important action even of doubtful event, a struggle for liberty, the resisting a potent invader, or the like, have also had beneficial influences on the progress of art. Greece, divided into small states frequently at war with each other, advanced in literature and the fine arts to unrivalled perfection. The Corsicans, while engaged in a perilous war in defence of their liberties, exerted a vigorous national spirit; they founded a university for arts and sciences, a public library, and a public bank. After a long stupor during the dark ages of ecclesiastical tyranny, arts and literature revived among the turbulent states of Italy. The Royal Society in London, and the Academy of Sciences in Paris were both instituted after prolonged civil wars that had animated the people and roused their activity. On the other hand, as the progress of arts and sciences towards perfection is greatly promoted by emulation, nothing is sometimes more fatal than to remove this spur; as when some extraordinary genius appears to soar above rivalship. Thus mathematics long seemed to be declining in Britain: the great Newton, having surpassed all the ancients, left the moderns without any hope of equalling him; for what man will enter the lists who despairs of victory?

The useful have in all ages paved the way for the fine arts. Men upon whom the former had bestowed every convenience turned their thoughts to the latter. Beauty was studied in objects of sight; and men of taste attached themselves to the fine arts, which multiplied their enjoyments and improved their benevolence. Sculpture and painting made an early figure in Greece; which afforded plenty of beautiful originals to be copied in these imitative arts. Statuary, a more simple imitation than painting, was sooner brought to perfection: the statue of Jupiter by Phidias, and of Juno by Polycletes, though the admiration of all the world, were executed long before the art of light and shade was known. Another cause concurred to advance statuary before painting in Greece, viz. a great demand for statues of their gods. Architecture, as a fine art, made a slower progress. Proportions upon which its elegance chiefly depends, cannot be accurately ascertained, but by an infinity of trials in great buildings; a model cannot be relied on: for a large and small building, even of the same form, require different proportions. Literature as a branch of the fine arts deserves a separate consideration. See LITERATURE.

The cause of the decline of the fine arts may be illustrated by various instances. The perfection of vocal music is to accompany passion, and to enforce sentiment. In ancient Greece, the province of music was well understood; and being confined within its proper sphere, it had an enchanting influence. Harmony at that time was very little cultivated, because it was of very little use; melody reaches the heart, and it is by it chiefly that a sentiment is enforced, or a passion soothed: harmony, on the contrary, reaches the ear only; and it is a matter of undoubted experience, that the melodious airs admit but of very simple harmony. Artists, in later times, ignorant why harmony was so little regarded by

the ancients, applied themselves seriously to its cultivation, and have been wonderfully successful. But successful at the expense of melody; which, in modern compositions, generally speaking, is lost amid the blaze of harmony. In the Italian opera, the mistress is degraded to be handmaid; and harmony triumphs, with very little regard to sentiment. Among the Greeks also, as a conquered people, the fine arts decayed; but not so rapidly as at Rome under her various despotic emperors; the Greeks farther removed from the seat of government, being less within the reach of the Roman tyrants. During their depression they were guilty of the most puerile conceits; witness verses composed in the form of an axe, an egg, wings, and such like. The style of Greek authors, in the reign of Adrian, is unequal, obscure, stiff, and affected. Lucian is the only exception. We need scarce any other cause but despotism, to account for the decline of statuary and painting in Greece. These arts had arrived at their ut most perfection about the time of Alexander the Great; and from that time they declined gradually with the vigor of a free people; for Greece was now enslaved by the Macedonian power. It may in general be observed, that when a nation becomes stationary in that degree of power which it acquires from its constitution and situation, the national spirit subsides, and men of talents become rare. It is still worse with a nation that is sunk below its former power and pre-eminence; and worst of all, when it is reduced to slavery. Other causes concurred to accelerate the downfall of the arts mentioned. Greece, in the days of Alexander, was filled with statues of excellent workmanship; and there being little demand for more, the later statuaries were reduced to make heads and busts. At last the Romans put a total end, both to statuary and painting in Greece, by plundering it of its finest pieces; and the Greeks, exposed to the avarice of the conquerors, bestowed no longer any money on the fine arts. The decline of the fine arts in Rome is, by Petronius Arbiter, a writer of taste and elegance, ascribed to a cause different from any above mentioned, i. e. opulence, with its faithful attendants avarice and luxury. In England the fine arts are far from such perfection as to suffer by opulence. They are in a progress, indeed, towards maturity; but proceed at a very slow pace. Another cause that never fails to undermine a fine art in a country where it is brought to perfection, abstracting from every one of the causes above mentioned, has been already pointed out. Nothing is more fatal to an art or science, than performances so much superior to all of the kind as to extinguish emulation. This cause would have been fatal to the arts of statuary and painting among the Greeks, even though they had continued a free people. The decay of painting in modern Italy is probably owing to this cause: Michael Angelo, Raphael, Titian, &c. are lofty oaks, that bear down young plants in their neighbourhood, and intercept them from the sunshine of emulation. Had the art of painting made a slower progress in Italy, it might have there continued in vigor to this day. Archi

tecture continued longer in vigor than painting, because the principles of comparison in the former art were less precise than in the latter. The artist who could not rival his predecessors in an established mode, sought out a new mode for himself, which, though perhaps less elegant or perfect, was for a time supported by novelty. Useful arts will never be neglected in a country where there is any police; for every man finds his account in them. Fine arts are more precarious. They are not relished but by persons of taste, who are rare; and such as can spare great sums for supporting them, who are still more rare. For that reason they will never flourish in any country, unless patronised by the sovereign, or by men of power and opulence. And richly do they merit such patronage, as one of the springs of government; multiplying amusements, and humanising manners.

ART, the second person singular of the verb TO BE, of which the English language affords no variation, except by adopting the plural, by saying You are, instead of Thou art. Thou beest indeed was anciently used, but it is quite obsolete.

ART and PART in Scots law. See ACCESSARY. ARTA, or LARTA, a gulf, river, and town of European Turkey, in Albania, or Epirus, belonging to the government of Romania. The town is seated on the river of the same name, nine miles north of the spot where it falls into the gulf of Arta, above twenty miles north-east of Prevesa, and about 360 W. N. W. of Constantinople. The number of inhabitants, Christians as well as Turks, amounts to six thousand, who trade in cattle, wine, tobacco, cotton, flax, pulse, fur, leather, and other commodities. They also manufacture coarse woollen and other cloths. It is the seat of a Greek metropolitan and several European consuls. The gulf, otherwise called the gulf of Prevesa, extends a considerable way inland in an eastern direction, and from its rocks and sand banks, is very dangerous. Long. 21° 8′ E., lat. 39° 30′ N.

ARTABA, an ancient measure of capacity used by the Persians, Medes, and Egyptians.The Persian artaba is represented by Herodotus as bigger than the Attic medimnus by three Attic choenixes; from which it appears that it was equal to 63 Roman modii; consequently that it contained 1663 pounds of wine or water, or 1263 pounds of wheat. The Egyptian artaba contained five Roman modii, and fell short of the Attic medimnus by one modius; consequently held 133 pounds of water or wine, 100 lb. of wheat, or sixty of flour.

ARTABANUS, the name of several kings of Parthia. See PARTHIA.

ARTABANUS, the brother of Darius I, and the uncle and murderer of Xerxes. See ARTAXERXES.

ARTABAZUS, the son of Pharnaces, commanded the Parthians and Chorasmians in the famous expedition of Xerxes. After the battle of Salamis, he escorted the king his master to the Hellespont with 60,000 chosen men; and after the battle of Plataa, in which Mardonius engaged contrary to his advice, he made a noble retreat, and returned to Asia with 40,000 men.

ARTAKI, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in Na

tolia, on the south coast of the sea of Marmora, forty-five miles east of Gallipoli and ninety southwest of Constantinople. Long. 27° 39′ E., lat. 40° 18' N.

ARTAKUI, a town of European Turkey, in Romania, forty-eight miles north-west of Gallipoli.

ARTALIS (Joseph), a native of Mazara, A. D. 1628, who showed an early inclination both for poetry and arms. He finished his studies at fifteen years of age, when he fought a duel and killed his adversary. He took shelter in a church and afterwards studied philosophy. Candia being besieged by the Turks, he went to its relief, and displayed so much valor that he was created a knight of St. George. Being afterwards engaged in several rencounters and always victorious, he got the title of Chevalier de Sang, or the knight of blood. His literary talents obtained him the honor of being elected a member of several academies in Italy, and his military abilites procured him the favor of several princes, particularly of the Emperor Leopold I. and Ernest duke of Brunswick.

ARTAXATA, an ancient city, the metropolis of Armenia Major, and the residence of the Armenian kings: it was built according to a plan of Hannibal, for king Artaxias; and was situated on a branch of the river Araxes, which formed a kind of peninsula, and surrounded the town like a wall, except on the side of the isthmus, but this side was secured by a rampart and ditch. The town was deemed so strong that Lucullus, after having defeated Tigranes, durst not lay siege to it; but Pompey compelled him to deliver it without striking a blow. It was then levelled with the ground; but the Armenians have a tradition, that the ruins of it are still to be seen at a place called Ardachat. Sir John Chardin says, that it has the name of Ardachat, from Artaxias, whom in the east they call Ardechier. Here are the remains of a stately palace, which the Armenians take to be that of Tiridates, who reigned in the time of Constantine. One front of this building is half ruined, and there are many other fine antiquities.

ARTAXATA, OF ATROPATIA, another city built also on the Araxes, in the northern part of Media.

ARTAXERXES I. king of Persia, surnamed Longimanus, from the uncommon length of his arms, was the youngest son of Xerxes, and was raised to the throne A. M. 3487, by Artabanus, the captain of the guards, who had privately murdered his father; but persuaded the young prince that his elder brother Darius had done it; whereupon, assisted by the guards, he killed Darius in his bed-chamber. But the murder and treason being afterwards discovered, Artabanus suffered the punishment he merited. Some reckon this king the Ahasuerus who married Esther; but, be that as it may, it is certain that he greatly favored the Jews, by not only authorising them to return to Judea, and rebuild Jerusalem, but also to collect money for the use of their temple; as well as by remitting their tribute, by encouraging their worship, and by making them a number of valuable presents, &c. See his letter to Ezra, chapter vii, 10-26. For

an account of the other transactions of his reign, see PERSIA. He reigned about forty years, and died A. A. C. 447.

ARTAXERXES II. surnamed Mnemon, from his great memory, succeeded his father Darius II. A. M. 3546, but had to contend for his kingdom with his younger brother Cyrus, who was assisted by the Greeks, but was at last overcome and slain. It was after this battle that Xenophon displayed his generalship by his memorable retreat with his army. Artaxerxes reigned forty-three years, and died A. M. 3589. See PERSIA.

ARTAXERXES is also the name given in Scripture to, and probably assumed by, the impostor Oropastes; who, pretending to be Smerdis the son of Cyrus, reigned five months in Persia, after the death of Cambyses. During his short reign, the enemies of the Jews applied for, and obtained, an interdict of the rebuilding of the city and temple. See Ezra iv. 7.

ARTAXIAS, the founder of the kingdom of Armenia Major. See ARMENIA and ARTAXATA. ARTEDI (Peter), a famous Swedish naturalist, born in 1705. He was educated at the university of Upsal, where he studied medicine; but his time was chiefly dedicated to ichthyology, in which he made many valuable discoveries. Such was the friendship between him and Linnæus, that the longest liver was to be heir of all their MSS. He was drowned at Leyden in 1735. His Bibliotheca Ichthyologica and Philosophia Ichthyologica, were published by Linnæus in 1738.

ARTEDIA, in botany, a genus of the digynia order, and pentandria class of plants; ranking in the natural method, under the forty-fifth order, umbellatæ. The involucra are pinnatifid; the floscules of the disc are masculine; and the fruit is hispid with scales. The principal species is, viz. A. squamata, with squamose seeds, a native of the east. Rauwolf found it growing on mount Libanus. It is an annual plant, whose stalks rise about two feet high, sending out a few side branches, garnished with narrow compound leaves resembling tnose of dill.

ARTEMIDORUS, a Grecian teacher in Rome, who being intimate with Brutus, and learning from him of the intended assassination of Cæsar, delivered a note to him to inform him of it, as he went to the senate-house, and desired him to read it immediately, which Cæsar neglecting, fell a sacrifice to the plot.

ARTEMIDORUS, an ancient author, under Antoninus Pius, famous for his Treatise on Dreams, which was first printed in Greek at Venice in 1518. Rigaltius published an edition at Paris in Greek and Latin in 1603, and added some notes. Artemidorus wrote also treatises upon Auguries and Chiromancy; which are not extant.

ARTEMISIA I. queen of Caria, and the daughter of Ligdamis, marched in person in the expedition of Xerxes against the Greeks, and performed wonders in the sea-fight near Salamis, A. A. C. 480. Being pursued by an Athenian vessel, she attacked one of the Persian ships, commanded by the king of Calyndus, and sunk it; on which the Athenians, thinking that her ship was on the side of the Greeks, ceased their pursuit; but Xerxes was the principal person