ravelled through France, Germany, Holland, and Italy; and obtained a pension from Ferdinand II., grand duke of Tuscany. In 1669 he renounced the Protestant religion, became a popish priest, and was appointed by the pope his apostolical vicar for the north. He published several tracts on anatomy and medical subjects.

He died in 1603.

STENO STURE, a celebrated Swedish patriot. See SWEDEN.

STENOGRAPHIC, or STENOGRAPHICAL, (from stenography). Of or belonging to stenography, or writing in short-hand. STENOGRAPHIST, a short-hand writer.

STENOGRAPHY. The art of stenography, or thort-hand writing, was known and practised Dy several ancient nations. The Egyptians, who were distinguished for learning at an early period, at first expressed their words by a delineation of figures called hieroglyphics: a more concise mode of writing seems to have been afterwards introduced, in which only a part of the symbol or picture was drawn. This answered, in some degree, the purpose of a shorthand. After them the Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans, adopted different methods of abbreviating their words and sentences, suited to their respective languages. The initials, the finals, or radicals, often served for whole words; and various combinations of these sometimes formed a sentence. Arbitrary marks were likewise employed to determine the meaning, and to assist legibility; and it seems probable that every writer, and every author of antiquity, had some peculiar method of abbreviation, calculated to facilitate the expression of his own sentiments, intelligible only to himself. It is also probable that some might by these means take down the heads of a discourse or oration; but few, very few, it is presumed, could have followed a speaker through all the meanders of rhetoric, and noted with precision every syllable, as it dropt from his mouth. To arrive at such a degree of excellence in this art was reserved for modern times, and is still an acquisition by no means general.

Some writers have ascribed to the Roman poet Ennius the merit of having first invented a method of writing, by which the notarii were enabled to follow the most rapid of their orators. This, however, is extremely hypothetical. It is added, that Ennius's method was much improved upon by Tyro, Cicero's freed-man; and still more by the learned Seneca. Ennius, it appears, began at first to write with 1100 marks of his own contrivance, to which he might add, as circumstances and necessity demanded. In what the subsequent improvements consisted we have no account; probably only in the invention of new symbols or characters, and not in any attempt to write in a short manner, by the combination of new and more simple letters. The Romans certainly held this art in great estimation; for Suetonius, speaking of Caligula, expresses his surprise, that an emperor, who, notwithstanding his numerous vices, was not

ignorant of the art of stenographic writing. Titus Vespasian, in almost every respect a very different character from Caligula, is mentioned as being remarkably attached to short hand, and himself practised it with great facility, and often made it both his business and his amusement. He seemed to have great pleasure in calling his amanuenses together, and witnessing which of them wrote the fastest.

The art after this was much neglected, as is evident from two books of short-hand, mentioned by Trithemius. The first was a Short-Hand Dictionary, which he bought of an abbot, a doctor of law, for a few pence, to the great satisfaction of the community to which he belonged, who had desired the short-hand marks to be erased, for the sake of the parchment on which they were written. The other was a short-hand copy of the Book of Psalms, which he met with in another monastery, where the monks has inscribed upon it, by way of title, A Psalter in the Armenian Language. Several copies, however, of a Dictionary and Psalter, in Roman short-hand, are mentioned as extant in different libraries; but they are in general the same method, as may be conjectured from those who mention them, and also from the appearance of an old short-hand Psalter in the library of St. Germains, at Paris, carefully preserved as a stenographical curiosity. The late Mr. Byrom had a few pages of this transcribed for his inspection. Plutarch, in his Life of Cato, informs us, that the celebrated speech of that patriot, relating to the Catilinian conspiracy, was taken and preserved in short-hand; and there are numerous epigrams of Ausonius, Martial, and Manilius, commendatory of the art. But we must pass other ancient allusions and conjectures, only observing, that, probably, the oldest method of short-writing at present extant or known is a Latin MS., entitled Ars Scribendi Characteris, or The Art of Writing in Characters. The author of this is unknown; but it was printed about the year 1412.

In every language of Europe, till about the close of the sixteenth century, the Roman plan of abbreviating (viz. substituting the initials or radicals, with the help of arbitraries, for words) appears to have been employed. Till then no regular alphabet had been invented expressly for stenography, when an English gentleman of the name of Willis invented and published one. His plan was soon altered and improved, or at least pretended to be so. One alteration succeeded another; and at intervals, for a great number of years, men of ingenuity and application have

composed and published systems of stenography, and doubtless have themselves reaped all the advantages that attend it. But among the various methods that have been proposed, and the different plans that have been adopted by individuals, none has yet appeared fortunate enough to gain universal approbation; or proved sufficiently simple, clear, and concise, to be generally studied and practised. This would seem, indeed, to be an art so largely depending on practical and manipular skill, that no theory, however simple or scientific, can without extensive practice be of much importance to the student: while a comparatively imperfect system, in which the writer is well and habitually exercised, will be found of importance to many professions and stations in life.

English writers on stenography, are Addy, Aldridge, Angell, Annet, Blandemore, Blosset, Botley, Bridges, Byrom, Coles, Cross, Dix, Everardt, Ewen, Facey, Farthing, Gibbs, Græme, Gurney, Heath, Holdsworth, Hopkins, Jeake, Labourer, Lane, Lyle, Macauley, Mason, Mavor, Metcalfe, Nicholas, Palmer, Rich, Ridpath, Shelton, Steele, Tanner, Taylor, Thicknesse, Tiffen, Webster, Weston, Williamson, Willis, B. D., and Willis, &c. Of all these Dr. Mavor has been thought to give the most complete work in his Universal Stenography, now used as a class book in many schools: others, however, prefer Rich's system as improved by Dr. Doddridge. Mr. Gurney's, perhaps, has been most extensively and respectably practised in this country.

Some systems are replete with unmeaning symbols, perplexing arbitraries, and ill judged contractions; which render them so difficult to be attained by a common capacity, or ordinary application, that it is not to be wondered at if they have sunk into neglect, and are now no longer known. Other schemes, by being too prolix, by containing a multiplicity of characters, and those characters not simple or easily remembered, become ineffectual to the purpose of expedition, and are only superior in obscurity to a common hand. Some, again, not only reject all arbitrary characters and contractions, but even prepositions and terminations; which last, if not too lavishly employed and badly devised, highly contribute to promote both expedition and legibility; and, though they reduce the characters to fewer than can possibly express the various modifications of sound, yet they make nearly one-half of them complex. In the disposition of the vowels, there is the greatest perplexity in most systems. A dot is sometimes substituted for all the vowels indiscriminately, and the judgment is left to determine which letter out of six any dot is intended to express; or a minute space is allotted them; so that, unless they be arranged with mathematical precision, they cannot be distinguished from one another; but such a minute attention is inconsistent with the nature of short hand, which should teach us to write down in a short time, as well as in small bounds, what we wish to preserve of what we hear. Nor is the plan of lifting the pen and putting the next consonant in the vowel's place, in the middle of words, less liable to objections; or that of representing all the vowels by distinct characters,

being obviously ill calculated for facility and despatch, and consequently inadmissible into any useful system. The person who first proposed the omission of vowels in the middle of words, which it is obvious are not wanted, and invented letters, which could be connected as in a running hand without lifting the pen in the middle of the word, made a real improvement on the works of his predecessors. But most systems labor under the capital defect of being too complicated, and so defeat the end of their invention; for they can neither be learned with ease, nor remembered with accuracy, nor be practised with the expedition which is requisite.

The method first subjoined will be found superior to most yet published, in the disposition of the vowels and the facility of arranging them, the confusion in placing which seems to detract from the merit of the best performances: and it may be affirmed, without ostentation, that characters, simpler in their form, and more perfect in their union, have not been applied to the art of stenography. As well as it could be determined, the simplest characters are appropriated to the letters most usually employed: indeed, as far as possible, those which are complex have been rejected; but as it was an object always kept in view that the writing should be on a line, a few were admitted into the alphabet for that reason.

In forming the characters for the double and triple consonants, care has been taken to provide against all obscurity which might arise by adopting letters too similar in their formation; and, with respect to the prepositions and terminations, those which occur most frequently are expressed by the simplest characters. The arbitraries are few in number, and the abbreviations, as they are entirely from the letters of the alphabet, and chosen from some thousands of words in common use, will well repay the learner for an hour's trouble in committing them to memory.

In the last section is laid down a scheme of abbreviation, comprised in a few rules, perfectly easy to be understood and practised by proficients in this art. The learner is, however, advised by no meaus to adopt any of them, till experience has convinced him that they may be used without error or injury to legibility. All abbreviating rules are suited to those only who have made some progress in the stenographic art; for although they certainly promote expedition, and afford the greatest ease to a proficient, yet a learner, as expedition is not his first, though his ultimate view, should admit of nothing that in the least renders the reading difficult. SECT. II.—OF THE PRINCIPLES OF STENOGRAPHY.

The English alphabet consists of twenty-six letters; six of which are vowels, as every schoolboy knows. This alphabet, as is observed by the best grammarians who have written on the language, is both defective and redundant in expressing the various modifications of sound. But all modern alphabets are equally, and some more anomalous in these respects. But as it is not our intention to propose a mode of spelling different from that in common use, when applied to printing or long-hand writing, we shall only

site to the middle; and, when for i and y, at the bottom. This arrangement of the vowels we take to be the most simple and distinct that can easily be imagined. Places at the top, the middle, and the bottom of characters, which make three different positions, are as easily distinguished from one another as any three separate characters could be; and a comma is made with the same facility as a point.

Simple lines may be drawn four different ways; perpendicular, horizontal, and with an angle of about 45° to the right and left. An ascending oblique line to the right, which will be perfectly distinct from the rest when joined to any other character, may likewise be admitted. These characters, being the simplest in nature, are assigned to those five consonants which most frequently occur, viz., l, r, t, c hard or k, and c soft or s. Every circle may be divided with a perpendicular and horizontal line, so as to form likewise four distinct characters. These being the next to lines, in the simplicity of their formation, we have appropriated them for b, d, n, and m.

The characters expressing nine of the consonants are all perfectly distinct from one another; eight only remain which are needful, viz. f, g or j, h, p, q, v, w, and r; to find characters for which we must have recourse to mixed curves and lines. The characters which we have adopted are the simplest in nature after those already applied, admit of the easiest joining, and tend to preserve lineality and beauty in the writing. It must be observed that we have no character for c when it has a hard sound, as in castle; or soft, as in city; for it always has the sound of k or s, which in all cases will be sufficient to supply its place; or c, being easier written, might be used in all cases for the hard sound. R likewise is represented by the same character as 7; only with this difference, r is written with an ascending stroke and with a descending; which is always to be known from the manner of its union with the following character; but in a few monosyllables where r is the only consonant in the word, and consequently stands alone, it is to be made as is shown in the alphabet for distinction's sake. The character for h, when lineality requires it, may be made from the bottom and inverted. See Plate I. And often h may be omitted entirely. 2, as it is a letter seldom employed in the English language, and only a coarser and harder expression of s, may be supplied by s whenever it occurs; as for Zedekiah write Sedekiah, &c., or z itself may be used. SECT. IV. OF THE PREPOSITIONS AND

MINATIONS.

TER

The prepositions and terminations in this scheme are so simple, that the greatest benefit may be reaped from them, and very little trouble required to attain them; as the incipient letter or the incipient consonant of all the prepositions, and of several of the terminations, is used to express the whole. But, although in Plate I. sufficient specimens are given of the manner of their application, that the learner of more slow perception may have every assistance, we have subjoined the following directions :

RULE I.-The preposition is always to be written without joining, yet so near as plainly to show what word it belongs to; and the best way is to observe the same order as if the whole was to be connected.

RULE II.-A preposition, though the same letters that constitute it may be met with in the middle or end of a word, is never to be used, because it would expose to obscurity.

RULE III.-Observe that the preposition omni is expressed by the vowel o in its proper position; and for anti, anta, ante, by the vowel a, which the radical part of the word will easily distinguish from being only simple vowels.

The first rule for the prepositions is (allowing such exceptions as may be seen in the plate) to be observed for the termination; and also the second mutatis mutandis; except that whenever sis, sus, sys, cious, tious, and ces, occur, they are to be expressed as directed in the fourth rule for the consonants, whether in the beginning, middle, or end of words. But in a few words, where three horizontal characters meet, it will be better to express the sis, &c., by the semielliptical character in plate I. opposite tious.

RULE IV.-The terminative characters for tion, sion, cion, cian, tian, is to be expressed by a small circle joined to the nearest letter, and turned to the right; and the plurals tions, sions, cions, cians, tians, tience, by a dot on the same side.

RULE V. The terminative character for ing is to be expressed likewise by a small circle, but drawn to the left hand; and its plural ings by a dot. In horizontal characters, by the left hand is meant the top, and by the right the space below the letter. See ing joined, plate I. In all other characters the right and left positions cannot be mistaken.

RULE VI. The plural sign s is to be added to the terminative characters when necessary.

RULE VII.-The separated terminations are never to be used but in polysyllables, or words of more syllables than one.

These rules duly observed will point out a method as concise and elegant as can be desired, for expressing the most frequent and longest prepositions and terminations in the English language. If it should be thought necessary to increase their number, by the addition of others, it will be an easy matter for any one of the least discernment to do so, by proceeding on the principles before laid down.

SECT. V.-RULES FOR ABBREVIATIONS. Though a more concise method of writing, or more numerous abbreviations may not be indispensably necessary, if the foregoing directions be practised for a considerable time, yet contractions will be found extremely useful and convenient to those who have attained a proper knowledge of the subject, and lead to a greater degree of expedition, at the same time that they diminish the labor of writing. It has been observed in the introduction that abbreviations are only to be employed by proficients in this art; because expedition is not the first, though the ultimate object in view; and that an easy legibility is of the utmost consequence to the learner; which, however, cannot be preserved, if he adopts too soon

seen.

RULE I. The usual abbreviations in longhand are always to be followed; as Mr. for Master, M. D. for Doctor of Physic, and Abp. for Archbishop, &c.

RULE II.-Substantives, adjectives, verbs, and participles, when the sense will direct to the meaning, are to be expressed by their initial consonant with the distinguishing marks exhibited in plate I; viz. a substantive must have the dot exactly over its initiai consonant; an adjective must have a dot under it; a verb is to be expressed by a comma over its initial consonant; and a participle by a comma under. The dot or comma, being placed thus, will never occasion them to be mistaken for vowels, because they should always be on one side or other; whereas the marks for parts of speech must constantly be placed exactly over or under. These being the four principal parts of speech will be sufficient; and an adept will never be at a loss to know when he can with safety apply this rule to them.

RULE III.-To render the writing more legible, the last letter of the word may be joined to the first, and the proper mark applied.

RULE IV. The constituent or radical part of words, especially if they are long, will often serve for the whole, or sometimes the first syllable; as, we ought to moderate our ex. by our circum. ; a man's man. commonly shape his for.

RULE V.—All long words without exception may have their prepositions or terminations expressed by the incipient consonant of such preposition or termination.

RULE VI. When there is a great dependence between the parts of a sentence, the initial letter will often suffice; as, L. is the capital of Great B.; the eldest S. of the king of G. B. is styled P. of W. Every one, it is presumed, will allow this to be perfectly legible, either in long or short

hand.

RULE VII. The termination ness and less may

be omitted; as faithfulness is only to be written faithful; forwardness, forward; heedless, heed; stubborness, stubborn, &c.

RULE VIII.-The second and third persons of verbs, ending in eth and est, may be expressed by s; as, he loves, thou teaches; instead of he loveth, thou teachest; or even without s; as, he love, &c.

RULE IX.-Words naturally supplied by the sense may only often be entirely omitted, and yet no ambiguity ensue; as, In beginning God created heaven and earth, for In the beginning

God created the heaven and the earth.

RULE X.-When there is an immediate repetition of a sentence or word, a line is to be

CONTENTS OF THE STENOGRAPHIC PLATES
I. AND II.

I. Fabricius's Reply to Pyrrhus.-As to my poverty, you have indeed, Sir, been rightly informed. My whole estate consists in a house of but mean appearance, and a little spot of ground, from which by my own labor I draw my support. But if by any means you have been persuaded to think that this poverty makes me less considered in my country, or in any degree unhappy, you are extremely deceived. I have no reason to complain of Fortune: she supplies me with all fluities, I am also free from the desire of them. that nature requires; and, if I am without superWith these, I confess I should be more able to which the wealthy are to be envied; but, as small succor the necessitous, the only advantage for thing to the support of the state and the assistas my possessions are, I can still contribute somecountry places me, poor as I am, upon a level ance of my friends. With regard to honors, my with the richest; for Rome knows no qualifications for great employments but virtue and ability. She appoints me to officiate in the most august ceremonies of religion; she entrusts me with the command of her armies; she confides to my care does not lessen the weight and influence of my the most important negociations. My poverty counsels in the senate; the Roman people honor me for that very poverty which you consider as a disgrace; they know the many opportunities curring censure; they are convinced of my disI have had in war to enrich myself without ininterested zeal for their prosperity; and, if I have any thing to complain of in the return they make, it is only the excess of their applause. What What king can add any thing to my fortune! value then can I set upon your gold and silver! bent on me, I have a mind free from self-reproach, Always attentive to discharge the duties incumand I have an honest fame.-Dodsley's Pre

ceptor.

II.-A letter to a friend against waste of time. Converse often with yourself, and neither 'avish your time nor suffer others to rob you of it. Many of our hours are stolen from us, and others pass insensibly away; but of both these through our own neglect. If we take the trouble losses the most shameful is that which happens

part of our life is spent in doing evil, and the other in doing nothing, or in doing what we should not do. We don't seem to know the value of time, nor how precious a day is: nor do we consider that every moment brings us nearer our end. Reflect upon this, I entreat you, and keep a strict account of time. Procrastination is the perly ours but the instant we breathe in, and all most dangerous thing in life. Nothing is probut then it is fleeting, and the first comer robs us the rest is nothing; it is the only good we possess; oblige by giving of trifles, and yet reckon that of it. Men are so weak that they think they time as nothing for which the most grateful per

to observe, we shall find that one considerable

A