20

ever they were found, among slaves or strangers, enemies or barbarians. During the most flourishing era of the Athenian commonwealth the number of citizens gradually decreased from about thirty" to twenty-one thousand." If, on the contrary, we study the growth of the Roman republic, we may discover that, notwithstanding the incessant demands of wars and colonies, the citizens, who, in the first census of Servius Tullius, amounted to no more than eighty-three thousand, were multiplied, before the commencement of the Social War, to the number of four hundred and sixty-three thousand men able to bear arms in the service of their country." When the allies of Rome claimed an equal share of honors and privileges, the senate, indeed, preferred the chance of arms to an ignominious concession. The Samnites and the Lucanians paid the severe penalty of their rashness; but the rest of the Italian states, as they successively returned to their duty, were admitted into the bosom of the republic," and soon contributed to the ruin of public freedom. Under a democratical government the citizens exercise the powers of sovereignty; and those powers will be first abused, and afterwards lost, if they are committed to an unwieldy multitude. But when the popular assemblies had been suppressed by the administration of the emperors, the conquerors were distin

20 Tacit. Annal. xi. 24. The Orbis Romanus of the learned Spanheim is a complete history of the progressive admission of Latium, Italy, and the provinces, to the freedom of Rome.

21 Herodotus, v. 97. It should seem, however, that he followed a large and popular estimation.

22 Athenæus, Deipnosophist. 1. vi. [c. 103] p. 272, edit. Casaubon. Meursius de Fortuna Atticâ, c. 4.a

23 See a very accurate collection of the numbers of each Lustrum in M. de Beaufort, République Romaine, l. iv. ch. 4.b

24 Appian. de Bell. Civil. l. i. [c. 53]. Velleius Paterculus, I. ii. c. 15, 16, 17.

On the number of citizens in Athens, compare Boeckh, Public Economy of Athens (English tr.), p. 45 seq. Fynes Clinton, Essay in Fasti Hellenici, vol. i.

381.-M.

All these questions are placed in an entirely new point of view by Niebuhr (Römische Geschichte, vol. i. p. 464). He rejects the census of Servius Tullius as unhistoric (vol. ii. p. 78 seq.), and he establishes the principle that the census comprehended all the confederate cities which had the right of Isopolity.-M.

guished from the vanquished nations only as the first and most honorable order of subjects; and their increase, however rapid, was no longer exposed to the same dangers. Yet the wisest princes, who adopted the maxims of Augustus, guarded with the strictest care the dignity of the Roman name, and diffused the freedom of the city with a prudent liberality."

Italy.

a

Till the privileges of Romans had been progressively extended to all the inhabitants of the empire, an important distinction was preserved between Italy and the provinces. The former was esteemed the centre of public unity, and the firm basis of the constitution. Italy claimed the birth, or at least the residence, of the emperors and the senate.26 The estates of the Italians were exempt from taxes, their persons from the arbitrary jurisdiction of governors. Their municipal corporations, formed after the perfect model of the capital, were intrusted, under the immediate eye of the supreme power, with the execution of the laws. From the foot of the Alps to the extremity of Calabria all the natives of Italy were born citizens of Rome. Their partial distinctions were obliterated, and they insensibly coalesced into one great nation, united by language, manners, and civil institutions, and equal to the weight of a powerful empire. The republic gloried in her generous policy, and was frequently rewarded by the merit and services of her adopted sons. Had she always confined the distinction

of Romans to the ancient families within the walls of the city, that immortal name would have been deprived of some of its noblest ornaments. Virgil was a native of Mantua;

25 Mæcenas had advised him to declare, by one edict, all his subjects citizens. But we may justly suspect that the historian Dion was the author of a counsel so much adapted to the practice of his own age, and so little to that of Augustus. 26 The senators were obliged to have one third of their own landed property in Italy. See Plin. 1. vi. ep. 19. The qualification was reduced by Marcus to one fourth. Since the reign of Trajan, Italy had sunk nearer to the level of the provinces.

It may be doubted whether the municipal government of the cities was not the old Italian constitution rather than a transcript from that of Rome. The free government of the cities, observes Savigny, was the leading characteristic of Italy. Geschichte des Römischen Rechts, i. p. 16.-M.

Horace was inclined to doubt whether he should call himself an Apulian or a Lucanian: it was in Padua that an historian was found worthy to record the majestic series of Roman victories. The patriot family of the Catos emerged from Tusculum; and the little town of Arpinum claimed the double honor of producing Marius and Cicero, the former of whom deserved, after Romulus and Camillus, to be styled the Third Founder of Rome; and the latter, after saving his country from the designs of Catiline, enabled her to contend with Athens for the palm of eloquence.""

The prov inces.

The provinces of the empire (as they have been described in the preceding chapter) were destitute of any public force or constitutional freedom. In Etruria, in Greece," and in Gaul," it was the first care of the senate to dissolve those dangerous confederacies which taught mankind that, as the Roman arms prevailed by division, they might be resisted by union. Those princes, whom the ostentation of gratitude or generosity permitted for awhile to hold a precarious sceptre, were dismissed from their thrones as soon as they had performed their appointed task of fashioning to the yoke the vanquished nations. The free states and cities which had embraced the cause of Rome were rewarded with a nominal alliance, and insensibly sunk into real servitude. The public authority was everywhere exercised by the ministers of the senate and of the emperors, and that authority was absolute and without control. But the same salutary maxims of government, which had secured the peace and obedience of Italy, were extended to the most distant conquests. A nation of Romans was gradually formed in the provinces, by the double expedient of introducing colo

27 The first part of the Verona Illustrata of the Marquis Maffei gives the clearest and most comprehensive view of the state of Italy under the Cæsars.

28 See Pausanias, 1. vii. [c. 16]. The Romans condescended to restore the names of those assemblies, when they could no longer be dangerous.

29 They are frequently mentioned by Cæsar. The Abbé Dubos attempts, with very little success, to prove that the assemblies of Gaul were continued under the emperors. Histoire de l'Établissement de la Monarchie Françoise, 1. i. ch. 4.

a Compare Denina, Revol, d' Italia, 1. ii. ch. 6, p. 100, 4to edit.

nies, and of admitting the most faithful and deserving of the provincials to the freedom of Rome.

Colonies and

towns.

"Wheresoever the Roman conquers, he inhabits," is a very just observation of Seneca," confirmed by history and experience. The natives of Italy, allured by pleasure municipal or by interest, hastened to enjoy the advantages of victory; and we may remark that, about forty years after the reduction of Asia, eighty thousand Romans were massacred in one day by the cruel orders of Mithridates." These voluntary exiles were engaged, for the most part, in the occupations of commerce, agriculture, and the farm of the revenue. But after the legions were rendered permanent by the emperors, the provinces were peopled by a race of soldiers; and the veterans, whether they received the reward of their service in land or in money, usually settled with their families in the country where they had honorably spent their youth. Throughout the empire, but more particularly in the western parts, the most fertile districts, and the most convenient situations, were reserved for the establishment of colonies; some of which were of a civil, and others of a military nature. In their manners and internal policy the colonies formed a perfect representation of their great parent; and as they were soon endeared to the natives by the ties of friendship and alliance, they effectually diffused a reverence for the Roman name, and a desire, which was seldom disappointed, of sharing, in due time, its honors and advantages." The municipal cities insensibly equalled the rank and splendor of the colonies; and in the reign of Hadrian it was disputed which was the preferable condition, of those societies which had issued from, or those which had been re

30 Seneca in Consolat. ad Helviam, c. 7.

31 Memnon apud Photium (c. 33) [p. 231, ed. Bekker]. Valer. Maxim. ix. 2 [ext. 3]. Plutarch [Sulla, c. 24] and Dion Cassius [p. 74, Fr. 176] swell the massacre to 150,000 citizens; but I should esteem the smaller number to be more than sufficient.

32 Twenty-five colonies were settled in Spain (see Plin. Hist. Natur. iii. 3, 4, iv. 35); and nine in Britain, of which London, Colchester, Lincoln, Chester, Gloucester, and Bath still remain considerable cities. (See Richard of Cirences ter, p. 36, and Whitaker's History of Manchester, 1. i. ch. 3.)

ceived into, the bosom of Rome." The right of Latium, as it was called, conferred on the cities to which it had been granted a more partial favor. The magistrates only, at the expiration of their office, assumed the quality of Roman citizens; but as those offices were annual, in a few years they circulated round the principal families." Those of the provincials who were permitted to bear arms in the legions;" those who exercised any civil employment; all, in a word, who performed any public service or displayed any personal talents, were rewarded with a present, whose value was continually diminished by the increasing liberality of the emperors. Yet even in the age of the Antonines, when the freedom of the city had been bestowed on the greater number of their subjects, it was still accompanied with very solid advantages. The bulk of the people acquired, with that title, the benefit of the Roman laws, particularly in the interesting articles of marriage, testaments, and inheritances; and the road of fortune was open to those whose pretensions were seconded by favor or merit. The grandsons of the Gauls who had besieged Julius Cæsar in Alesia commanded legions, governed provinces, and were admitted into the senate of Rome."" Their ambition, instead of disturbing the tranquillity of the State, was intimately connected with its safety and greatness. So sensible were the Romans of the influence of language over national manners, that it was their most serious care to extend, with the progress of their arms, the use of the Latin and the Latin tongue." The ancient dialects of Italy, the Sabine, the Etruscan, and the Venetian, sunk into oblivion; but in the provinces, the East was less docile

Division of

the Greek

provinces.

33 Aul. Gell. Noctes Atticæ, xvi. 13. The Emperor Hadrian expressed his surprise that the cities of Utica, Gades, and Italica, which already enjoyed the rights of Municipia, should solicit the title of colonies. Their example, however, became fashionable, and the empire was filled with honorary colonies. See Spanheim, de Usu Numismatum, Dissertat. xiii.

34 Spanheim, Orbis Roman. c. 8, p. 62.

35 Aristid. in Romæ Encomio, tom. i. p. 218, edit. Jebb.

36 Tacit. Annal. xi. 23, 24. Hist. iv. 74.

37 See Plin. Hist. Natur. iii. 5 [s. 6]. Augustin. de Civitate Dei, xix. 7. Lip sins de Pronunciatione Linguæ Latina, c. 3.