enthusiasm. His adherents urged him dants. At midnight an entrance was to lead them against the committees, effected, and a disorderly band penebut again Robespierre wavered, and trated to where the irresolute leaders of again his hesitation was fatal. During the faction were yet sitting. They were that night a conspiracy was organized. all arrested and bound. Robespierre's The majority of the Convention was lower jaw was broken by a pistol shot. gained over to the party of the Com- During the night he lay in agonies, and mittees. Robespierre was ignorant of the victim of the last indignities. Early this. He had secured the Jacobins, the the next day he was led to the guilloCommune, the faubourgs, and he anti- tine, amidst the execrations of the very cipated a triumph. With such expec- people who a short time before had tations he entered the Convention. To caressed and worshipped him as an his surprise he found his enemies in idol, and executed with his adherents. possession of the tribune, the assembly He met his fate with his wonted impasand the people in the galleries. His sability. arrest and that of his companions was decreed. Their partisans at the Commune rescued them at the doors of the prisons, and carried them in triumph to the Hotel de Ville. But Robespierre would not act. In vain he was entreated to assume the dictatorship and lead his followers against the Convention. He refused to play the part of a rebel. Meanwhile the convention had acted with promptitude. Barras had organized a force, and locked up the approaches to the Hotel de Ville, and by the majesty of law gained over many of its defen Such was the career and end of this wonderful man. His character has already been written in the preceding sketch. In estimating it we are in danger both of undue leniency, and unwarrantable severity; leniency, when we consider abstractedly his aims, severity when we contemplate only the means by which he sought to accomplish them. His is one of those characters in fine, upon which the heartscrutiny of the Deity alone can decide: our most penetrating insight may be at fault. NICHOLAS BREAKSPEARE. A CRITICAL journal of the day reminds | them. The bestowal of the triple crown us that "the age of Adrian ÏV. was in some respects like our own. The church had its Mazzini in Arnoldo, and the Pope had been forced to fly from Rome." But here the parallel ceases. The fact that an Englishman of humble birth ascended the Papal throne, and that from the chair of St. Peter he could give away a kingdom to the nation of his birth, reminds us rather of the vast difference between the Rome of the middle of the twelfth century and the Rome of the middle of the nineteenth. Whatever were her merits or demerits in other respects, she had then some claim to the title of Catholic. Catholic at least she was, if not in adapting the work she accomplished to the spiritual needs of the whole of mankind, yet certainly in offering the tools-such as they were to all who could handle had not yet become an affair of mere The weakness that puts a limit to its extent and marked. Ecclesiastical and poliand duration. The bounds of its sove-tical differences have wrought with, and reignty are decided by the measure of aggravated each other. Neighbouring generous and clear-sighted comprehen- peoples generally sympathise in intelsiveness with which it can assimilate or lectual and social changes, especially subordinate all other power to itself. when the same language prevails in In the age of Adrian IV. the Papal both. But, in order that this may be dominion in its double aspect had the case, they must either be mutually reached its culminating point. A cen- independent, or joined in peaceful and tury or two later, and we find it begin-honourable union. Races made hostile ning to show signs of decrepitude; when through unjust conquest, seldom or neinstead of relying on itself, it becomes ver sympathise, unless where the close again the mean dependent on foreign proximity and the numerical weakness alliances, only to be restored to something of the subjugated produce veritable like vigour by Jesuitism-the science of intrigue and diplomacy. That a monument to NICHOLAS BREAKSPEARE should be talked of in this late and alien age, and that the proposition to erect one should come from Romanists living in a country for the most part hostile to Romanism, is perhaps chiefly owing to his fatal gift of Ireland. But for this, Popery might possess for us merely a speculative interest, akin to ancient feudalism, with its old-world romance, or as a singular feature of continental states. We fusion, as is the case with the Celtic The doubtful morality-to say no more-of a chapter of English history in the twelfth century, has, however, been followed by a measure of punishment in almost every subsequent page. When Pope Adrian IV. bestowed the sister island on Henry II., he gave it to be held under a condition; and though times and creeds in England have changed since then, Providence has confirmed the bond. Peter's pence have been paid, in one form or other, ever since; often in the form most galling and offensive to the English government. If, in recalling the age of Nicholas Breakspeare, we are reminded of changes on the surface of things, we are no less strikingly impressed by the strong and stern reality of those eternal moral laws that underlie all, and that never change. There is no need in this case to enter on the vexed question, when sins are always visited on nations and individuals according to general laws of punishment. The connection between causes and effects is too patent here to allow of any dispute as to the mode in which the sequence has taken place. Ireland lawlessly annexed to England, has been treated as a conquered country until a comparatively recent period. We cannot wonder therefore, that the separation has been strong Our readers may have no intention of nec scelestum Deseruit pede pæna claudo. inscribing their names as lavish contributors on the proposed monument to Adrian IV. at Rome. But his position among great English churchmen of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, and the strength of his individual character as well as the traces he has left in the history of his country, demand the passing tribute of a few moment's recollection. Standing as his name does, in the list of European sovereigns, we almost forget it in its natural relationship to those of Anselm, Thomas à Becket, and Stephen de Langton. But that a wider field opened to his ambition, he might have troubled England with sacerdotal feuds like his famous contemporaries, or anticipated the honour of his deservedly illustrious successor in blessing it with civil freedom. The particulars of Breakspeare's life that have reached us are not numerous, but they are sufficiently vivid and characteristic to redeem him from the number of that wan and ghostly troop of historical personages, that, as in the faded colours of an antique tapestry, come like shadows, so depart; to employ his acknowledged talent in a more congenial sphere; and that, without any assignable ground for prejudice or animosity. With as little apparent reason, the most successful of English ecclesiastics was repulsed from holy orders by one whom we may reasonably judge to have been wont to deem wisely of men's capacities for the cloister, with the chilling admonition, “Wait, my son, till you are better qualified." It is as rejected by Richard, Abbot of St. Albans, that Ådrian IV. makes his debût as an aspirant to church dignities. Beginning in the lowest capacity, we find him traversing faithfully every round of the ladder of ecclesiastical preferment; for with greater truth than Wolsey, he could claim to have" sounded all the depths and shoals of honour." Robert de Camere, his father, was a servitor in the monastery of St. Albans. And at Langley, in the vicinity, about the close of the eleventh century, Nicholas Breakspeare was born. The son seems to have followed the same humble calling as the father, who, however, ultimately rose from his subordinate position to a rank among the brethren. Nicholas, in endeavouring to follow in the same path, met with the repulse just mentioned. He had probably discharged the mean offices of his station with zeal and faithfulness; and leave us incredulous of their existence-still more so of their renown. We have here the life of a clear-sighted and stalwart Englishman; of one who did not creep into high station by mean acts and subterfuges, but by the vigor-but, if the abbot's judgment is rightly ous exercise of stern mental energy, not without giving offence to the indolent; of one who, of the stumbling blocks thrown in his way, had the courage and the talent to make stepping stones for an ascent by a higher path to a loftier pinnacle of ambition than he had at first contemplated. In fact, but for early discouragement, his ashes might now be reposing-with small distinction at any rate among the Abbots of desolate Verulam instead of claiming new honours in "the eternal city." It is one of the most gracious uses of biography, that for every kind and form of despondency to which generous youth can be tempted, it has provided a sanative and counter-charm. Both in the department of pure intellect and of "practical" life, it affords striking examples of early repulse followed by signal triumph. In modern times, we see one of the ablest critics in an age of able criticism, recommending the most richly endowed poetical genius of a period not scantily favoured by the muse, interpreted, clerkly skill was wanting. Regarding this as the actual allegation in bar to his claim, there seems good ground for suspecting the sincerity or the discernment of the venerable Richard. An impeachment of his humility would have been more plausible, and possibly more just; for one of the testimonies against him is that "he was of a sharp wit and ready utterance; circumspect in all his words and actions; polite in his behaviour; neat and elegant; full of zeal for the glory of God, and that according to some degree of knowledge; so possessed of all the most valuable endowments of mind and body that in him the gifts of heaven exceeded nature; his piety exceeded his education; and the ripeness of his judgment and his other qualifications exceeded his age." At a later period, when the menial of St. Albans had become Pope of Rome, and a congratulatory message was sent to him from Henry II., through Abbot Richard's successor, Robert, the bearer of it, finding that the Holy Father had not forgotten for-mitted into the brotherhood, but, upon mer incivilities, and that he was un- the death of the abbot, William, in 1137, willing to accept costly presents from was unanimously chosen to succeed the community that had refused him as him."* But Breakspeare's Saxon energy, a member, had the wit to observe that hardened into rigour by labours and "it was not for them to oppose the will reverses, was unpopular in the luxuriof Providence, which had destined him ous latitude of Provence. He was refor greater things." solved to "magnify" the office which Whether the sternness of character he had attained with so much effort, which must have distinguished the son and we cannot but admire his determiwas still more remarkably developed in nation that monks should be monksthe father, or whether the latter es- that they who made a show of austerity teemed it part of a holy ascetism to and abstinence, should cultivate the remollify and renounce all natural affec-ality. Not so the brethren of St. Rufus. tion, does not appear; but we are They impeached their Mother Superior assured that Nicholas's failure was at- before the reigning Pope. But Eugetributed by him to a supineness of nius III. better understood the interests disposition which he could not forgive. of the Church than to condemn one of Breakspeare had to fight his way in the its most faithful servants. When they world as best he might; and the suc- urged their accusations as a reason for ceding passage in his story is singularly diminishing or depriving Nicholas of his in harmony with the whole tenor of his abbatial authority, "This man," said career. Stung into greater activity by the Pope," shall be no burden to you." the consciousness of having deserved If they knew not how to profit by the what he suffered, or, as is more proba- stern vigilance of an able superior, there ble, stimulated by a feeling of its were others who would or should; and manifest injustice, he left the petty nine years after his election at Avignon, jealousies of St. Albans for the broader Breakspeare was made cardinal-bishop theatre of mental rivalry afforded by of Alba-an office originally importing the intellectual metropolis of medieval a papal vicariate in the immediate viciEurope. Of his strivings and achiev-nity of Rome; the number of whose ments at Paris, only a brief record occupants has been limited to six, and remains; but could we find the autobiography of the hard-bested student, we should light upon no common-place chapter in the annals of the pursuit of knowledge under difficulties. He had to live as well as to learn; and in both departments of effort-one of which is occupation enough for ordinary mortals -he acquitted himself bravely. His waiting for better qualification was to some purpose; as all such waiting, in the discipline of self-culture, probably is. As if some natural attraction drew him by degrees to the scene of his future glory, his next step was towards Avignon, in Provence, where he began life again as servitor in the monastery of St. Rufus. If want of intellectual to enjoy the dignity which he had adcultivation, or of that humility which is apt to rank high among conventual virtues in the opinion of ghostly magnates, had been the cause of his failure in England, there was no such deficiency now. "His affable manners and obliging disposition, his diligence in study, and above all, the profound respect which he paid to his superiors, soon commended him to the good-will of the monks, and he was not only ad who may be regarded as among the Pope's most immediate ministers. He had now a fair stage for his talents, and rapidly attained summit after summit of his ambition Northern Europe was still to some extent Pagan. Indeed the last races of Paganism have not yet disappeared from European Russia. But at that time, the important kingdoms of Denmark and Norway were unconnected with the Catholic Church. The strict disciplinarian proved an equally successful missionary, and the natives of those kingdoms professed themselves converts, as the result of his visit in 1148. The prosperous ecclesiastic had not long to wait, in order vanced. After the brief career of Anastasius, the successor of Eugenius, the long-desired goal presented itself, and Nicholas Breakspeare, the only Englishman who ever enjoyed that dignity, attained the triple crown, assuming the appelation of Adrian IV. We have spoken of the papal chair as the object of Breakspeare's ambition. * Lives of Illustrious Englishmen, Vol. I. It would be almost absurd to imagine tent an organised existence and a it otherwise. But just at the period in tongue. As a disciple of the halfquestion, the headship of the church heretical Abelard, he had been iniwas no sinecure. Eugenius III. and tiated in more liberal philosophical Anastasius had bequeathed a troubled views than most of his contemporaries; state to their successor in office; and and, as is often the case, a disposition he that would bear St. Peter's keys must to free political enquiry followed in their draw St. Peter's sword. History records wake. With his assistance a republic, that Adrian IV. was elected strongly approaching the model of the ancient against his wishes. In this case, how- constitution, was established: the chief ever, he had no reason to complain of feature of which was a senate of fifty-six being misunderstood or undervalued members, chosen by a body of delegates The sacred college needed a strong and from the thirteen districts of the city. stalwart man-a real ruler-and having We shall not be surprised at the comparafound such a one in this well-tried tive facility with which this revolution Anglo-Saxon, they thrust him into the took place, when we remember the unpost of honour and danger. certain character of the authority-as fluctuating between spiritual and temporal sway-in all quarters of the Pope's dominions. Romans might still profess themselves humble vassals of the Church, in one respect, while they resented its claims in another. But the whole of Arnaldo's public life was a time of intermittent civil war, frequently marked by fierce and savage encounters. While the Reformer, against whom no spiritual crime could be alleged, was condemned by the second Lateran Council, on a novel impeachment-viz. for political heresy· - the vengeance of his followers lighted on adversaries in a more palpable form. In a disturbance arising from this quarrel, Lucius II. was even mortally wounded with stones. Eugenius, Breakspeare's patron, was obliged to flee for refuge. Riot and pillage prevailed in the city, and the mansions of lords, spiritual and temporal, were plundered and burned. In fact, but for the bold and resolute Englishman who now came to the succour of the falling Papacy, the See of St. Peter might have been deprived of the States of the Church; and with them, perhaps, permanently mulcted of a large portion of spiritual as well as temporal sovereignty. 66 The status which the Bishops of Rome had assumed for the past century had withstood the assaults of external foes-kings and kaisers and recusant ecclesiastics. Outside the States Territory of the church, the despotism of the Roman see was ever popular with the commonalty. It was pleasant to them to see haughty heads-whether of temporal or spiritual rulers-bowed beneath a power, whose aspect the chasm of distance transfigured into that of a benign and fatherly sway. "The magnates of holy church," writes the Emperor Henry IV. to Hildebrand archbishops, bishops, and priests-thou hast trodden under foot as slaves, and gratified the envy of the vulgar for the sake of their applause." But nearer home a spirit of revolt had begun to shew itself. The popes had been unblushing levellers; and the people were disposed to follow their spiritual guides after fashion of their own. The former had invoked the mighty shades of old republican and imperial dignities to justify and gild their novel assumptions; and the latter hastened to draw the parallel more closely and faithfully. While the popes" compared their legates with the proconsuls of ancient Rome," their Italian lieges reflected that subjection to a petticoated priest was a miserable exchange for the republic of the Catos or the empire of the first Cæsars. Like Pio Nono-but we think with less pure intentions-they had set rolling a stone whose course they found it difficult to check or to direct. Arnaldo, a monk of Brescia, gave to these vague sentiments of discon One of the first acts of Adrian IV., shews a decision of character which seems to contrast strongly with the vacillation of his predecessors. They had relied on the weak arm of temporal dominion. He exerted at once the irresistible force of ghostly authority. The fair vision of restored liberty vanished at once. The forms of freedom were a vain show, for the minds of the soi-disant freemen were still enthralled. They had contemned and rebelled against the magistrate, but |