allowed to sag; and that the joints are properly protected by a free use of insulating tape. Upon brick or stone walls, and in all places where there is danger of injury, the conduit method should be used, the wires being run in conduits or pipes. In this case the angles and bends of the conduits must be made in easy curves so that the wires may be easily "drawn in". At a cost between knob-and-tube wiring and conduit work, duplex wiring may be installed, in which a flexible metallic cable containing the wires in pairs and heavily insulated is used. These cables, of various makes and usually spiral in appearance, Fig. 39, unite the flexibility of the open wiring and the protective quality of the conduit, are easily handled, and assure a good quality of wire, being manufactured under the approval of the Board of Fire Underwriters. They are to be recommended for good house-wiring. Fig. 39. Typical Armored Cable for Metal boxes can be used to advantage at the surface, for either light outlets or switch outlets, and in many localities are required. As the position of these boxes determines absolutely the position of the finished switches and fixtures, it is important to see that they are set plumb and square with the wall and the proper distance away from rough door or window openings to clear any proposed finish. All wiring should be tested when installed and again at completion of the building, to insure against any mechanical injury. For electric bells, it is usual to run an insulated wire secured to the studs by staples, and care must be taken to see that bells as well as light outlets are placed in convenient places. If the bells are to be operated mechanically, the manipulating wires should be run in zinc tubes; as such wires stretch and break in time, bells operated by an electric current are generally preferred. OUTSIDE FINISH ROOF Before the building is ready for the plasterer, the outside and the roof must be made tight. We have seen that the gutters are set and primed or oiled to protect them against water; and above the gutter, and rebated or tongued into the back, is set the "shingle fascia”, a vertical board varying in width according to size of gutter and pitch of roof. This fascia is usually beveled off on top to receive the butts of the first course of shingles, Fig. 40. Shingles. The shingling of the roof begins upon the fascia with a double course projecting a little, and from the butts of these shingles are measured off the courses of the roof. Unless the roof is very steep the courses should not exceed 41⁄2 inches for the length of 16 inches, into which cedar and redwood shingles are usually sawed. Cypress shingles are found 18 or 20 inches long and are the most durable of all shingles, but redwood and cedar, especially Fig. 40. Typical Gutter Construction cedar, are more commonly used. Regarding durability, cypress shingles have been known to last more than a hundred years, redwood shingles from twenty-five to fifty years, and cedar shingles from twelve to twenty years. Paper. The question as to whether paper shall be put under shingles or not is open to argument. If the shingles are laid without being dipped in paint or with the butts only dipped, the paper will cause sweating, and, preventing any circulation of air under the shingles, will cause them to decay much sooner than if paper were not used; but, on the other hand, if the attic is plastered, there is, without paper, danger of damage from leaks and from fine snow sifting under the shingles. In the present case the attic is to be unfinished and we will use no paper on the roofs. Ridge and Hips. The ridge of a shingled roof is usually finished by means of saddle boards nailed over the tops of the last courses, Fig. 41, but sometimes an ornamental cresting is used. Hips are best finished by what is called "saddle-board shingling", in which a course of shingles is put over the roof shingles at right angles with the hip. There is little danger of roofs leaking at the ridges and hips, but the hip shingles unless well nailed are likely to be blown off. The plane surface of the roof is not liable to leak, if reasonable care is taken, but dormers, chimneys, and valleys are sources of great danger. Flashings. The flashing against chimneys and the vertical sides of dormers is done by means of pieces of tin or zinc about 7 inches square, bent in the middle so that one-half will lie in the course of shingles and one-half turn up against the vertical wall, to be covered by the shingles of the wall or by the counter-flashing of the chimney. In the eastern States zinc is generally used for flashings, but in the West tin is the common material. In the forming of valleys, one of two methods is followed, that of an "open" or a "close" valley. In the former case the shingles are kept apart 6 or 8 inches, and the valley is made of zinc or tin, often in long strips locked and soldered at the joints and running under the shingles from 4 to 6 inches. The defect in this method of a continuous piece of metal is that there is no chance for the metal to expand and contract in its length, without danger of straining the joints and even of starting the shingles or slates which are laid over it. For this reason the use of separate pieces of metal of the length of shingles or slates and shingled in with each course is to be preferred. These are bent, lapped in the same way as the shingles, without soldering, and are free to expand and contract without damage. In the case of the close valley, the shingles are laid very near together at the angle, and narrower pieces of zinc or tin are shingled into each course. Fig. 41. Section Showing Ridge Finish The flashing of roofs is a matter which needs a great deal of attention on the part of the superintendent, who should look especially to see that the metal used is wide enough. Counterflashings are often omitted unless particularly mentioned. Where used, they should always be built into the brickwork if possible; if not built in, they must be carefully wedged into joints which have been raked out and pointed with cement. Every part of the flashing of a roof should be examined by the superintendent; it must never be left to the care of the builder or the workmen. Nails. The use of galvanized nails for shingling has become general. They should be of the variety known as "cut nails" which contain a greater body of metal than wire nails and do not rust out so soon. Slating and Tiling. With slating or tiling greater care is necessary than with shingles. Neither slates nor tiles will lie as close to the roof, or to each other, as shingles, and for this reason the boarding should always be matched, and, since the circulation of air is no object with slates, tarred paper should always be used. The lap of the slates should vary with their length, at least 3 inches for headcover being allowed; that is, each slate must lap 3 inches below the head of the second slate below it. Tiles are constructed with a variety of joints and laps designed to meet the needs of the different forms of the tile. Both slates and tiles should be put on with galvanized nails, which must not be driven too hard for fear of cracking, and yet must be driven hard enough to prevent loosening or rattling. If the cost is not too great, copper should be used for all gutters and flashings. It is a good practice to lay the first three or four courses of a slate roof above the gutter in elastic cement, and also all hips and ridges. Fire-Resisting Roofings. The increasing demand, especially in metropolitan districts, for a fire-resisting covering for roofs has resulted in the manufacture of "shingles" other than of wood. Asbestos, tin, steel, and various types of paper coated with slag, asphalt, and other fire-resisting substances have been put upon the market. All of these aim to preserve appearance as well as to secure safety, and it is a mere matter of selection, if some other material than wood must be used. The main objection to most of these substitutes is that those of moderate cost are likely to have a rather thin appearance, or else give a metallic look which although well in itself does not generally please the taste as does the old wooden shingle. WALLS Window Frames. After the completion of the roof comes the preparation of the side walls for the finishing, and the first thing to be done is to set the window frames. In wooden houses the stud will usually make one side of the weight box, and the frame -BOARDING will consist only of the pulley stile and casing. Sometimes the boarding is kept back from the edge of the studding, and the casing is set upon the studding with a piece of finish or a "backband" put over the joint with tarred paper or, better still, strips of zinc, -BOARDING SCREEN Fig. 42. Section of Window Frame Fig. 43. Section of Window Frame to keep out the water, Fig. 42. If the frame is set against the usual 4-inch studding, the outer casing will form one side of the groove in which the sash slides, but in the other case there is room to put a strip inch or inch wide inside the casing, in which the sashes may slide, and to leave a space for mosquito guards, Fig. 43. The top of the frame must be flashed with lead, and the bottom of the sill grooved to receive the top of the shingles or clapboarding, which are put on as soon as the frames are placed. Pockets of canvas, in which the window sill is set, are advisable in exposed situations. Coal Chute. To avoid the marring and soiling of the cellar window frame by the putting in of coal and wood, a metal chute of stock pattern may be installed, which, if desired, may take the place of a window. It consists of a metal frame with a hinged cover which turns up entirely out of the way, disclosing a metal hopper that can be pulled forward and used as a chute for the coal, Fig. 44. If set to take the place of a window, the cover is glazed; otherwise it is better if made solid, unless the chute is in a conspicuous location. Fig. 44. Typical Coal Chute for |