tect. The owner, in his implicit confidence and trust in the foresight of the architect, is likely to visit upon him the blame for particular failures of construction which could only be avoided by the care of superior workmen under the constant watchfulness of the builder or an ever-alert clerk of the works; and it is well for the architect to have it understood at the beginning that he cannot always be present and that he cannot in ordinary practice guarantee perfection of plan or execution, but that he will agree to give reasonable care and observation.

With the contractor it should be clearly understood at the beginning that the work is to be done strictly in accordance with the drawings and specifications, that the materials are to be as called for, the workmen to be competent, and the builder himself interested and capable. If any unfit material appears upon the site, it should be rejected at once and finally, for any laxity or indecision upon this point at the start will surely be taken advantage of, and will be a precedent for future indifference. Any work not done carefully or in accordance with the drawings, must be at once taken down, in the presence of the architect if possible, and any mistakes discovered should be noted before they are forgotten or crowded aside by other details.

With the foreman an understanding should be had at once that he is to work with the architect and not against him. It is poor policy for the architect to ignore suggestions made by the foreman, for if the latter is a thorough mechanic of ability and foresight, as the foreman of a building of any importance should be, he will often be in a position to save the owner from needless expense, and the architect from many of the vexatious conditions and minor complications which frequently arise in ordinary building transactions.

Familiarity with Site. Of prime importance to the architect in starting a new building is a familiarity with the site and with local conditions and customs; it will also be of advantage to him to make the greatest possible use of the time spent in preliminary visits to the locality, to observe what is being or has been done in the vicinity. The more familiar the architect is with local customs or possibilities, the more efficient will his supervision of that particular building become, through the rejection of practices which are bad and the adoption of those which are good. There are very

few buildings from which the young architect cannot learn something, and it is an unprogressive builder who has not some particular method which will be new to the superintendent.

Familiarity with Drawings. Another essential, a matter of the greatest importance, is that the superintendent should have a perfect understanding of the drawings and specifications. If these have been prepared by the architect who is to superintend the work, an understanding is assured, but even in this case it will be necessary to consult the plans often, lest something be overlooked or confused with some other building which the architect may have in mind. Familiarity with the plans and specifications will also be of service in enabling him to look ahead, and to prevent many unintentional deviations which carelessness or lack of understanding on the part of the builder, or of the foreman upon whom will devolve many of the duties and responsibilities of modern building operations, might occasion, and which, once started, might seriously delay or damage the construction. The foreman, and the master builder himself, as well, should receive personal directions from the architect, and should be particularly instructed to look over the drawings carefully, and to report to the architect any discrepancies in figuring or any apparent difficulties of execution which either may discover, and all points not clearly shown or fully understood.

Self-Confidence. With this feeling of co-operation thoroughly established between the owner, the architect, and the builder, the architect will be in a position to decide any questions of difference with an assurance that his decisions, being fair and impartial, will be respected. Satisfied that his opinions are correct, he should announce his decisions promptly and impartially, and, his answer being once given, he must have the courage to maintain his position until proved to be in the wrong. Hesitation or a lack of confidence in his own judgment might affect the prestige of the architect, and might be taken advantage of.

Systematic Plan of Supervision. In following the construction of a building, the superintendent will find it of importance to adopt some systematic method in order to make sure that attention is given to the various details of construction at the proper time. If this is not done, many defects of construction and workmanship are likely to be concealed or built upon in such a way as to make

correction impossible, or at the least inconvenient. To prevent this, the superintendent should make a point of going all over the building at each visit and examining carefully any work which has been done since his last visit. In this way he will not only guard against concealed defects but he will be able to time his next visit so that special operations, which he will be able to foresee, will receive his personal attention and direction at the proper time.

Inspection of Materials. One of the most important safeguards against defective building is the careful inspection of the materials as they are delivered at the building site, and the prompt rejection of any improper materials. These should be marked plainly, in such a way that it will be impossible to use them in the superintendent's absence without the mark being seen. If poor materials have been brought into the building, they should be rejected at once and, if possible, removed from the building site. If the contractor finds at the start that all poor materials will surely be rejected and that all work which is not properly done must surely be rebuilt, he will be careful that both workmanship and materials are maintained at the proper standard and, for his own sake as well as for the good of the building, he will keep on the building only workmen who prefer to do a good job rather than a bad one.

PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS

Selection of Site. First in importance to the owner as well as to the architect is the selection of the spot where the house is to stand. To the owner the essentials will be the outlook and ease of access, and, at the same time, the appearance which the house will present from the various approaches, and the light and warmth of sunshine possible in the principal rooms. In almost all portions of our country a southern or eastern exposure is the pleasantest and should be the choice for the main rooms, that they may thus. receive the morning sunshine and warmth in winter and avoid the intense heat of the afternoon in summer.

To the architect, less apparent but no less essential considerations present themselves in the practical aspects of the ground. In rocky or hilly country, besides the significance of the outlook, is the importance of placing the house so that natural advantages of slope and ledge may be profited by for driveways and yards.

Study of Soil. In every location the consideration of the character of the soil is of great moment. It may be rocky, or clayey, or sandy; it may be springy or well drained. The surest way to

Fig. 1.

سيدات

...01.,

Ground Water in Soil Excavation

find out the actual condition is by digging test pits to the proposed depth of the cellar, but in many cases the appearance of the surface will give sufficient indication of the nature of the soil, while the presence of ledge may be detected by driving a rod into the ground to the depth of excavation. If the soil is rocky or clayey, we may anticipate trouble from water, which in rock or clay finds a way

into the excavations, Fig. 1, and, having no way of escape, gradually rises until the pressure is sufficient to force a way through the cellar wall or concrete, in spite of almost any precaution which

1.

Fig. 2. Location of Cellar Drain

may be taken to exclude it. The only remedy is to give the water an easier way to escape than through the wall or cellar concreting; in towns where there are sewers this is an easy matter, as it is only necessary to secure a good connection with the sewer by means of suitable pipes, which must be started at a level lower than the cellar bottom, Fig. 2. This makes it necessary for the house to be set high enough so that the bottom of the cellar is well above the top of the sewer. If the house is in a locality where there is no sewer, water may be guarded

against similarly by laying drains with a proper grade from the cellar of the house to an outlet wherever one can be found at a lower level. This can usually be done in a rolling country; but a cellar in clay

or rock in a level country is likely to be a continual source of trouble and should be avoided if possible. Most suburban towns afford some choice in house lots, so that often serious trouble may be evaded by a careful examination of the soil and of surrounding conditions before purchase is finally made. In sandy or gravelly soil hardly any extra precautions will be needed as the water is free to drain away through the sand and will have no tendency to ́run through the wall of the cellar. Even in sandy soil, however, it will be well to give the outside of the wall a coating of cement or asphaltum, care being taken to see that the whole surface is covered.

Description of House. The house which we will assume to construct is the same as that treated in detail in "Architectural Drawing", and we may suppose it to be erected upon a suburban lot not wholly level but with the usual variations of ground and aspect. The house is designed in the colonial style, Fig. 3, and comprises a large living-room, hall, parlor, dining-room, back hall, china closet, kitchen, pantry, and entry, on the first floor, Fig. 4; and five chambers with bathroom and stair halls on the second floor, Fig. 5. The attic is unfinished, and the basement contains a laundry with wash trays, a storeroom, and servant's water closet.

The living-room is finished in quartered oak, the dining-room in mahogany, the parlor, halls, and sleeping-rooms in white painted finish. The kitchen and service portions of the house are finished in North Carolina hard pine. The floors of the main house are of quartered oak in the first story and spruce in the second story; the floors of the service portions are of Georgia pine. The exterior walls are clapboarded and the roof shingled.

Drawings. The drawings upon which the contracts are to be based consist of a plan of each floor, a roof plan, and elevations of all four sides. Where the inside finish is at all elaborate, sectional drawings are made in sufficient number to show all of the rooms and halls. These general drawings, supplemented later by framing drawings and details and a carefully written set of specifications, represent the labor, materials, and methods to be employed. The necessity for a perfect familiarity with these drawings and specifications on the part of the superintendent is obvious, and has been already dwelt upon to some length, but a few words may well be