THE EDINBURGH CHRISTIAN MAGAZINE. for a time, mask the true average, but The next process is the boiling of the Sometimes the rags, instead of being cut by hand, are consigned to a cutting machine, which acts on the principle of the scissors. The only difference is, that the alternating motion of the scissors, is converted into a circular and continuous motion. There are four equidistant stationary blades, and four similar ones that revolve on the same axis, and act against the former. The rags, after being cut to the proper size, are committed to a dusting machine, which acts very much like a thrashing-mill. The machine is fed with the rags in the same way, and there are teeth which act upon the rags just as the teeth in a peg thrashing-mill act upon the straw, for the purpose of disengaging the corn. There are also fanners attached to the machine, which blow away the dust from the rags as they are tossed about by the revolving cylinder. The rags, after being boiled for nine or ten hours, are taken out of the boilers, and conveyed in trucks to the enginehouse. The rags are now in a condition to be reduced to a pulp, though the first part of this process is merely called washing. The engine, for this is the name given the machine, consists of a large trough, with a wheel revolving in steam-boat. The floats of the steamer's it on one side, exactly like the paddle of a paddles represent steel bars or blades, which act, without touching, upon similar bars, fixed to the bottom of the trough. The rags, with a proper quantity of water, are put into the trough, and the wheel, revolving with great velocity, carries them under, and crushes them between the fixed and revolving bars. The mass of rags is, in this way, carried round in a current, and come again under the action of the wheel, till the texture is completely destroyed. This process is a kind of mastication. As the jaws masticate food to prepare it for the stomach, so, by this process, the rags are reduced to a pulp, that it may be assimilated by the paper machine, and converted into the required product. In the washing, only imperfectly reduced to a pulp. or first part of the process, the rags are flow down to vats, in a lower story, After being washed, they are allowed to where the bleaching process is conducted. Here the proper proportion of chloride of lime is mixed up with the stuff, and the whole is allowed to remain for about ten hours in the vat. has expired, the stuff has assumed a sufWhen this time ficient degree of whiteness. It is then taken out of the vats, and transferred to a box with a sieve at the bottom. box is placed under a press, and the The water is squeezed out, exactly as the whey is pressed out of a cheese. The stuff is now exactly like cotton from a hard pressed bale, and may be teased out in the same way. The texture, however, requires to be much shortened, and the masticating process must again be resorted to. the beating engine, which acts in preIt is therefore committed to cisely the same way as the washing constructed, as to reduce the stuff to a engine already described, only it is so complete pulp. For this purpose, the masticating teeth or bars are brought nearer and nearer, as the process goes on. the size is added to the pulp, which conAt this stage of the manufacture, sists of rosin, alum, and potash. In some kinds of paper, the size is applied after the paper is made into sheets; but the fabric which was in the course of manufacture at the time of our visit, was paper hangings, and this requires the size to be applied to the liquid pulp. Paper would act like a sponge if it had no size, and consequently, blotting paper | has none, as its object is to absorb moisture. When the stuff is reduced to a perfect pulp, it flows into an immense circular vat, or reservoir, called the stuff chest. Lest the pulp should have an unequal consistency, the whole mass is kept constantly stirred by what is called an agitator. We have now enumerated all the preparatory processes, which are equally necessary in the hand, as in the machine system of paper-making. It is at this point that the modern marvels of paper-making commence. But before proceeding to the machine-room, we cannot but advert to what appeared to us the very striking analogies which the various processes have to the nutrition of the animal system. The rags may be compared to the raw food. The boiling of the rags corresponds to the cooking process. The size is equivalent to the seasoning of the food. The grinding into pulp corresponds to the mastication of food. The stuff chest may represent the stomach, and the machine which converts the pulp into paper, may stand for those assimilating processes which convert the chyle into organic tissues. These analogies are, no doubt, fanciful; but fanciful analogies are useful in the way of supplying pegs for memory to hang its facts upon. We were next conducted by the intelligent and obliging superintendent into the machine-room, which presented a long range of intricate and beautiful machinery, which appeared to do its work so independently, that the few attendants seemed to be stationed near it rather for the purpose of viewing it with rapt admiration, than for aiding it in its operations. It would be in vain for us to attempt tracing all the delicate intricacies of the machinery. We can only hope to communicate the essential idea of the machine. And indeed, when endeavouring to understand any mechanical process, it is best not to distract the attention, or load the memory with nonessentials, but at once endeavour to grasp the fundamental principle of the process. In the hand system of paper-making, a mould or sieve is dipped into the liquid pulp, and then lifted up and gently shaken. · The water runs through, and leaves a thin white film like snow. The shaking tends to make the fibres lock together as in felting, so that the fabric is more compact. A piece of felt, of the same size as the mould, is applied to this film, and as it adheres more tenaciously to the felt than to the wire-cloth of the sieve, it is lifted off unbroken. The sheet is then subjected to various processes, which impart solidity and tenacity, so that it is converted into perfect paper. Now, the object of the paper-machine is to convert this bit by bit process into a continuous one; to make, in other words, a web of paper of any length, instead of single sheets. In the accomplishment of this object we have another illustration of the principle to which we have repeatedly referred,-viz., the conversion of the flat square mould into a continuous and revolving one. A web of wire-cloth is stretched between two rollers, just as a skein of thread is stretched out upon the hands to be unwound. The rollers go round on their axis, and the web is carried round, like the driving-belt seen in every factory and indeed in the common spinning wheel also. Instead of the belt, we are to suppose a broad web, presenting a long level surface, constantly moving on, at the rate of about one foot per second; the under half of the web moving, of course, in the opposite direction. We have only to do with the upper half. At the one end, a white stream of pulp is poured equally upon the wire-cloth, across its whole breadth. This sheet of pulp is carried on upon the surface of the web, and, during its passage from the one end to the other, it undergoes certain processes which virtually solve the required problem. In the first place, as soon as the pulp falls on the wire-cloth, the water flows through, and leaves a THE EDINBURGH CHRISTIAN MAGAZINE. After this final process is completed, the paper is gradually wound round a roller, precisely as the weaver rolls his web round the beam as he advances with his house decoration, it was cut up into two work. As the paper was intended for breadths before being rolled on the cylinder. There were three circular cutting edges, acting precisely like circular saws. strip off each side of the paper as it The two side ones cut a narrow moved, in order to make a clean edge; and the middle one cut it into two breadths. When the roller was filled, it was taken off, and was in that state ready for the market-at least nothing more is necessary than that the exciseman should weigh it, and exact a tax of three halfpence for every pound. All the various processes which we have taken so much time to describe, are accomplished by the machine in about two minutes. The machine requires no more than that short period to convert the milky cascade of pulp into solid paper, and roll it up all ready for market. Were the visitor first taken to see the liquid white stream at the beginning of the process, and then to mark the stream of paper issuing forth at the other end, without examining the intermediate steps, it would all appear like magic. But a slow walk from the one end of the room to the other, exhibits the process so clearly, that all mystery is dispelled... film of pulp without any degree of con- | is actually heavier than if made of silver. sistency. It is, in fact, in the state in which the sheet is taken off in the handmould; but it must acquire much greater consistency before it can be led off the web-mould as a continuous sheet. further degree of solidification is proA duced as soon as the film reaches the middle of the frame. There the mouth of an air-pump is applied to the under surface of the cloth, to suck through the moisture still remaining. You see the pulp at this part suddenly drying; just as in a piston coffee-pot the wet, muddy sediment upon the piston suddenly becomes dry, by the downward suction, as soon as it is raised above the surface. Indeed, the action in both cases is identical. Still the consistency of the paper is not sufficient to enable it to be led off from the wire-cloth. It has been partially solidified by filtration and suction, but it still requires pressure, and this is produced by a roller at the very end of the wire-cloth. By these three processes the paper, by the time it reaches the end of the wire-cloth, acquires sufficient tenacity to be separated from it, and led off to the system of rollers which complete the process. Though the paper is by no means perfect when it is led off the wirecloth, yet the great difficulty is overcome, as a continuous sheet is obtained, which may easily be put through any process that may be necessary. The machinery after this point, indeed, appears more complicated and extensive, but the process is little more than a calendering one. In order to complete the process of solidification, the paper is pressed by numerous rollers covered with felt, and heated by means of steam. The last rollers are for the purpose of giving the surface a proper gloss and polish. For this pur-round the circumference of a circle, as pose the bare metallic surface of the rollers is employed. When, however, the finish requires to be high, a roller of paper is substituted. This roller does not consist of paper wound round like a web; it is composed of an immense number of circles pressed together. These circles are placed on the top of one another as in a pile of pence, and then compressed with such prodigious force, that the roller the supply of liquid pulp is regulated, is The beautiful contrivance by which worthy of remark. goes always at the same rate, or nearly As the machine so, it is plain that the thickness of the paper must depend on the quantity of stuff allowed to flow in a given time. Now, to regulate this supply, buckets are placed in a Persian wheel-indeed it is just the Eastern hydraulic machine. That wheel, which has plied its labours for thousands of years without any improvement, placed in juxtaposition with these mechanical marvels, which have been the product of the present century, presented vividly to immutability of the East, as compared our mind the striking contrast between the with the character of progress stamped on the Western nations. The paper mill, however, presents a beautiful adaptation of the wheel not borrowed from the East. This consists in removing or reversing any number of buckets according to the required thickness of the paper. As the wheel revolves always at the same rate, the quantity of pulp lifted and delivered by the buckets, must be just in proportion to the number of the buckets. Such of our readers as have occasion to travel by steam-boats, may witness a recent and a beautiful application of the same contrivance to the oiling of the crank which turns round the paddles. The oil is supplied by tiny brass buckets which dip into a reservoir, and deliver their contents to the surfaces requiring to be lubricated. As the buckets are worked by the motion of the crank, the supply of oil must just be proportioned to the wants of the axle-the precise object to be accomplished. But to return to the paper machine there are various ingenious contrivances to get rid of the sand that may still be suspended in the pulp. Indeed, from the very first process of rag-cutting to the very last, there is a constant war waged against sand. The pulp, before being spread upon the wire-cloth, has to pass through several strainers, for one of which a patent has been secured. The channel through which the pulp flows is divided into compartments, something like the locks of a canal; so that while the pulp flows over, the sand being heavier, settles down to the bottom of each lock or dam. Again, when the paper has acquired some consistency, a circular brush is applied to remove any grains that may still adhere. Gutta percha and India rubber are now found to be the greatest enemies; as no effectual remedy has yet been discovered to rid the paper of the small fragments that mingle with the pulp, and which, being spread out by the heated rollers, injure the appearance of the paper. On first examining the wire-cloth frame, we were struck with its tremulous mo tion. This shaky appearance, however, did not by any means indicate a palsied or shattered constitution. It was all on purpose to make the fibres lock together, as in the hand system. It gave us no little surprise and pleasure to witness an electrical phenomenon connected with the manufacture of the paper. One of the men informed us, that when the finished fabric was wound upon the cylinder, sparks of fire might be produced by bringing the hand in contact with the roll of paper. He compared the phenomenon to the crackling produced in lighting a lucifer match. Having conducted us to the spot, we at once saw that the phenomenon was produced by an abundant discharge of electricity. On approaching our knuckle, we felt quite distinctly. the peculiar prickling of the electric discharge. The explanation was very obvious. Paper is a very good electric-that is, it developes electricity on friction being applied. In passing through the rollers, it is subjected to sufficient friction; be-' sides, it is in the best state for developing friction-being very warm and dry. When we wish an electrical machine to act properly, we place it before a good fire if possible. If we wish to develope electricity from the fur of a cat by stroking it with the palm of our hand, we seize puss when basking on the hearth before a blazing fire. In the case of the paper, the hot cylinder supplied this important condition of dryness. It is easy to calculate the rate at which the paper is produced, from the rate at which the machine moves. We were informed, that the paper moved on at the rate of one foot per second-though the motion did not appear so rapid to the eye. At this rate this single machine would produce sixteen miles of paper in twentyfour hours. And as the paper which was making at the time of our visit was cut up into two breadths, we arrive at the startling result, that the machine, in the course of a day of twenty-four hours, would manufacture a web which would stretch nearly from Edinburgh to Glasgow. A SUMMER MIDNIGHT IN THE ARCTIC REGIONS. "I have before made mention of the remarkable stillness which may be observed at midnight in these regions; but not until now did it come upon me with such force, and in such a singular manner. I cannot attempt to describe the mingled sensations I experienced, of constant surprise and amazement at the extraordinary occurrence then taking place in the waters I was gazing upon, and of renewed hope, mellowed into a quiet, holy, and reverential feeling of gratitude towards that mighty Being who, in this solemn silence, reigned alike supreme, as in the busy hour of noon when man is eager at his toil, or the custom of the civilized world gives to business active life and vigour. Save the distant humming noise of the engine working on board of the steamer towing us, there was no sound to be heard denoting the existence of any living thing, or of any animate matter. Yet there we were perceptibly, nay, rapidly gliding past the land and floes of ice, as though some secret and mysterious power had been set to work to carry us swiftly away from those vexatious, harassing, and delaying portions of our voyage, in which we had already experienced so much trouble and perplexity. The leading vessels had passed all the parts where any further difficulty might have been apprehended, and this of course gave to us in the rear a sense of perfect security for the present. All hands, therefore, except the middle watch on deck were below in our respective vessels; and, as I looked forward ahead of us, and beheld the long line of masts and rigging that rose up from each ship before me, without any sail set, or any apparent motion to propel such masses onward, and without a single human voice to be heard around, it did seem something wonderful and amazing! And yet it was a noble sight: six vessels, -varying in size, strength, and equipment, from the huge hull of the powerful man-of-war, to the humble and lowly private ketch; alike varying in their build and sailing qualities, from the lofty three-master to the single-sparred cutter, acting as a tender to a schooner, but a size or two larger,-square sails, and fore and aft sails, pinnaces and barges, whale-boats and light boats; with every new invention in the art of steaming to aid the one class, while late discoveries. and useful plans were brought into use in gutta percha and infilated skins, to aid the latter class,— -were casting their long shadows across the smooth surface of the passing floes of ice, as the sun, with mellowed light, and gentler, but still beautiful lustre, was soaring through the polar sky, at the back of Melville's Cape, already on his way to begin the journey of another day. Yes, it was a noble sight: it was a sight that gendered in the heart the loftiest feelings; it made one proud of one's self, and of every other man that was connected with the vision then in view. Ay, in truth, it was a noble sight; and well could I look upward to the streaming pendant of my own dear country, that hung listlessly from the mast-head of the Assistance,' and feel the highest satisfaction in my breast, that I, too, was one of her children, and could boast myself of being born in her own free soil, under her own revered and idolized flag. But even as I beheld that listless symbol of my country's name, pendant from the lofty truck, my glance was directed higher; and as it caught the pale blue firmament of heaven, still in this midnight hour, divested of star or moon that shine by night, and brightened by the sun, my heart breathed a prayer, that He who dwells far beyond the ken of mortal eye, would deign to grant that the attempt now making should not be made in vain, but that those whom we are now on our way to seek, might be. found and restored to their home and sorrowing friends; and that, until then, full support and strength might be afforded them."-From Snow's Voyage of the "Prince Albert," sent in search of Sir · John Franklin. Thoughts for the Afflicted. In all circumstances whatever, hold fast thy confidence in thy Father's love, wisdom, and grace. To do so must ever be right, and therefore ever safe; and, in the end, must work out "the peaceable fruits of righteousness." God is thy Father. He knoweth thee, considereth all the minute details of thy indivi lual case, and designs for thee the greatest possible amount of good which even He can give thee, "according to the richness of His grace!" But then thou |