practicable, in order of battle, so that they can easily move into position. Camps which are to last many years, such as the camp of Boulogne, are intrenched and laid out with the nicest regularity; the men then lodge in barracks. Camps of instruction, such as that of Chalons, display the utmost science and skill in castrametation; being intended for several months' use, the men are comfortably lodged in large tents. With the exception of such permanent arrangements, tents are now seldom used for encampments; they have long since been discontinued in time of war, because they retard the movements of an army in the field, and because, in any cultivated country, shelter can be generally found, or materials procured for the construction of huts, which are by far the best kind of cover.

"Tents," says Napoleon, " are not wholesome. It is better for the soldier to bivouac, because he can sleep with his feet toward the fire; he may shelter himself from the wind with a few boards and a little straw. The ground upon which he lies will be rapidly dried in the vicinity of the fire. Tents are necessary for the superior officers, who have occasion to read and consult maps, and who ought to be ordered never to sleep in a house—a fatal abuse, which has given rise to so many disasters. All the European nations have so far followed the example of the French as to discard their tents; and if they be still used in camps of mere parade, it is because they are economical, sparing woods, thatched roofs, and villages. The shade of a tree against the heat of the sun, and any sorry shelter whatever against the rain, are preferable to tents. The carriage of the tents for each battalion would load five horses, who would be much better employed in carrying provisions. Tents are a subject of observation for the enemy's spies and officers of the staff; they give them an insight into your numbers, and the position that you occupy; and this inconvenience occurs every day, and every instant of the day. An army, ranged in

two or three lines of bivouac, is only to be perceived at a distance by the smoke, which the enemy may mistake for the vapor of the atmosphere. It is impossible to count the number of fires; it is easy, however, to count the number of tents, and to trace out the position that they occupy."

Since Napoleon's time the French have invented what is called "the shelter tent," which requires no additional means of transportation, and is now generally used on the march and in provisional encampments; indeed, in the Crimea, the mass of the French troops had no other shelter. It originated among the soldiers in Algeria, who joined two camp sacks together, and kept them stretched over a pole by means of small stakes driven into the ground. It now forms a regular part of the men's equipment, and in its improved form consists of square pieces of cotton cloth made waterproof, with buttons on one edge, and button holes on the edge corresponding. Each soldier has a square of this cloth, which adds but little to the weight which he or his horse has to carry. Buttoned together and supported by sticks or, for want of them, by muskets, they form a tent which can be raised and struck in a moment. Usually three men unite to form one tent; the third man arranging his piece of cloth at the end that is most exposed to the weather. When five men unite to form a shelter, it is Fig. 25.

made double the length, as in Figure 25, in which the squares A and B, C and D, are buttoned together and thrown over the cord, after which A is buttoned to C, and B to D. The fifth square can then be thrown over either of the slanting cords,

and buttoned to A and B, or to C and D. The sides of the tent are, of course, pegged to the ground.

Though often necessary, it is not always possible to intrench a camp so as to secure it from the enemy, because generally there is not time enough to cover the approaches with regular works. In such cases the roads and approaches are barricaded and made difficult of access; and these precautions should never be omitted, for they are the only means of holding the enemy at bay till the troops get under arms. Camps are always laid out according to prescribed rules, which, though varying with different nations, are based on the same principles of order and regularity. The degree of precision with which this is effected, necessarily depends on the amount of time; but, in all camps and bivouacs, regularity, though not always attainable, should be always aimed at. The following diagram represents a cavalry camp of three squadrons, as laid down in Cook's Cavalry Tactics.

Cantonments are large tracts of country, where the troops are quartered through the villages, among the inhabitants, or lodged in huts. Cantonments are resorted to, first, on the outbreak of a war, when the army collects together, waiting for the

commencement of operations; secondly, during the operations, in case of an armistice, or interruption of hostilities, on account of the severity of the season; thirdly, after the conclusion of peace, when a temporary occupation of the enemy's territory is stipulated, or for other similar reasons. According to circumstances, cantonments are confined to a narrow space, or spread out over a large extent of country.

When a country is rich in resources, or when an attack is feared, or an operation contemplated which requires promptness and rapidity of execution, the troops are collected in a narrower circle, and a single house is often made to lodge a whole company. If, on the other hand, the country is poor, and no immediate attack is apprehended, or when there is no intention of resuming hostilities, the troops are widely distributed, yet so as to allow a corps d'armée to be concentrated in twenty-four hours, which implies a front of from twenty to thirty miles, on about an equal depth. The troops are then disposed in three lines, the cavalry always remaining in the third, excepting those required to do outpost service. The first line guards itself always very nearly as in camp. But, whatever line they occupy, the cavalry always sleep with their horses, and, when near the enemy, with open doors, or better still with the doors lifted from the hinges, that they may not be treacherously locked in. At the close of the inclement season, the first line generally goes into camp again, and, if hostilities are impending, the other lines also. Cavalry and artillery, however, are left under shelter as long as possible, to favor the horses.

As an army on its march is protected by scouts and flankers, so, when at rest, it is guarded and protected by outposts. Like the former, these must watch over the safety of the main body, see that no one approaches unperceived, and, should the enemy make an advance, must arrest his progress until the troops are under arms and prepared to receive him. The

necessity of this arrangement is obvious. Men cannot stand ready day and night to repel an attack; they and their horses must have repose, and their wants be satisfied, that they may fulfil their duties properly. For this reason every position, whether bivouac, camp, or cantonment, taken up either for a long time, for a day only, or even for a few hours, is surrounded by a chain of guards to protect it from surprise, and to give rest and security to the occupants.

When troops encamp for some length of time, in addition to the ordinary measures of security invariably taken, they strengthen their outposts by abatis, redoubts, &c., and command the roads that lead to them, by fortifying farmhouses, barricading villages, bridges, and defiles, and in other ways rendering all possible approaches to the camp both difficult and dangerous. Outposts must be so disposed that every movement of the enemy may be immediately detected; that nothing can pass unobserved between them into camp; and that they can hold their ground against an enemy long enough to protect their troops from surprise. For this reason the men on outpost duty are arranged according to the parts they have to act, namely, those who watch the enemy, and those who endeavor to stop him in case of an attack. The first, called vedettes when mounted, are pushed on to a post whence they can overlook all the roads leading from the enemy's side; they are supported by outposts, and these by the grand guards, which in their turn are supported by the reserve or pickets. Some of these denominations are not always employed in the same sense. The English, for instance, still use the terms "outlying" and "inlying pickets,” which, in this country, are entirely obsolete; the French terms, as illustrated in the following diagram, having been generally adopted.

Troops for outpost duty are selected according to the nature of the ground. With an army they are generally composed of