to every one a fixed minimum, sufficient for subsistence, they apportion all further remuneration according to the work done: most of them even dividing the profits

propre capital, et qu'elle a payé aux citoyens qui se sont associés à ses opéra

tions.

Chez eux,

"Cette association est formée d'ouvriers qui n'apportent que leur travail; d'autres qui apportent leur travail et un capital quelconque; enfin de citoyens qui ne travaillent point, mais qui se sont associés en fournissant un capital. "Les maçons se livrent le soir à un enseignement mutuel. comme chez les fabricants de fauteuils, le malade est soigné aux frais de la société, et reçoit en outre un salaire durant sa maladie. Chacun est protégé par l'association dans tous les actes de sa vie. Les fabricants de fauteuils auront bientôt chacun un capital de deux ou trois mille francs à leur disposition, soit pour doter leurs filles, soit pour commencer une réserve pour l'avenir. Quant aux maçons, quelques-uns possèdent déjà 4000 francs d'épargnes qui restent au fonds social.

"Avant qu'ils fussent associés, ces ouvriers étaient pauvrement vêtus de la veste et de la blouse; parce que, faute de prévoyance, et surtout à cause du chômage, ils n'avaient jamais une somme disponible de 60 francs pour acheter une redingote. Aujourd'hui, la plupart sont vêtus aussi bien que les bourgeois; quelquefois même avec plus de goût. Cela tient à ce que l'ouvrier, ayant un crédit dans son association, trouve partout ce dont il a besoin sur un bon qu'il souscrit; et la caisse retient chaque quinzaine une partie de la somme à éteindre. De la sorte, l'épargne se fait, pour ainsi dire, malgré l'ouvrier. Plusieurs même, n'ayant plus de dettes, se souscrivent à eux-mêmes des bons de 100 francs payables en cinq mois, afin de résister à la tentation des dépenses inutiles. On leur retient 10 francs par quinzaine; et au bout des cinq mois, bon gré, mal gré, ils trouvent ce petit capital épargné."

The following table, taken by M. Cherbulicz from a work (Die gewerblichen und wirthschaftlichen Genossenschaften der arbeitenden Classen in England, Frankreich und Deutschland) published at Tübingen in 1860 by Professor Huber (one of the most ardent and high-principled apostles of this kind of cooperation), shows the rapidly progressive growth in prosperity of the Masons' Association up to 1858:

"Sur ce dernier dividende," adds M. Cherbuliez, "30,000 francs ont été

at the end of the year, in the same proportion as the earnings.*

It is the declared principle of most of these associations, that they do not exist for the mere private benefit of the individual members, but for the promotion of the co-operative cause. With every extension, therefore, of their business, they take in additional members, not to receive wages from them as hired labourers, but to enter at once into the full benefits of the association, without being required to bring anything in, except their labour: the only condition imposed is that of receiving during a few years a smaller share in the annual division of profits, as some equivalent for the sacri

prélevés pour le fonds de réserve, et les 100,000 francs restant, partagés entre les associés, ont donné pour chacun de 500 à 1500 francs, outre leur salaire, et leur part dans la propriété commune en immeubles et en matériel d'exploitation."

66

Of the management of the associations generally, M. Villiaumé says, J'ai pu me convaincre par moi-même de l'habileté des gérants et des conseils d'administration des associations ouvrières. Ces gérants sont bien supérieurs pour l'intelligence, le zèle, et même pour la politesse, à la plupart des patrons ou entrepreneurs particuliers. Et chez les ouvriers associés, les funestes habitudes d'intempérance disparaissent peu à peu, avec la grossièreté et la rudesse qui sont la conséquence de la trop incomplète education de leur classe."

* Even the association founded by M. Louis Blanc, that of the tailors of Clichy, after eighteen months trial of his system, adopted piece-work. One of the reasons given by them for abandoning the original system is well worth extracting. "En outre des vices dont j'ai parlé, les tailleurs lui reprochaient d'engendrer sans cesse des discussions, des querelles, à cause de l'intérêt que chacun avait à faire travailler ses voisins. La surveillance mutuelle de l'atelier dégénérait ainsi en un esclavage véritable, qui ne laissait à personne la liberté de son temps et de ses actions. Ces dissensions ont disparu par l'introduction du travail aux pièces." Feugueray, p. 88. One of the most discreditable indications of a low moral condition given of late by the English working classes, is the opposition to piece-work. When the payment per piece is not sufficiently high, that is a just ground of objection. But dislike to piece-work in itself, except under mistaken notions, must be dislike to justice and fairness; a desire to cheat, by not giving work in proportion to pay. Piece-work is the perfection of contract; and contract, in all work, and in the most minute detail-the principle of so much pay for so much service, carried out to the utmost extremity— is the system, of all others, in the present state of society and degree of civilization, most favourable to the worker; though most unfavourable to the nonworker who wishes to be paid for being idle.

VOL. II.-63

fices of the founders. When members quit the association, which they are always at liberty to do, they carry none of the capital with them: it remains an indivisible property, of which the members for the time being have the use, but not the arbitrary disposal: by the stipulations of most of the contracts, even if the association breaks up, the capital cannot be divided, but must be devoted entire to some work of beneficence or of public utility. A fixed, and generally a considerable, proportion of the annual profits, is not shared among the members, but added to the capital of the association, or devoted to the repayment of advances previously made to it: another portion is set aside to provide for the sick and disabled, and another to form a fund for extending the practice of association, or aiding other associations in their need. The managers are paid, like other members, for the time which is occupied in management, usually at the rate of the highest paid labour: but the rule is adhered to, that the exercise of power shall never be an occasion of profit.

Of the ability of the associations to compete successfully with individual capitalists, even at an early period of their existence, M. Feugueray* said, "Les associations qui ont été fondées depuis deux années, avaient bien des obstacles à vaincre; la plupart manquaient presque absolument de capital; toutes marchaient dans une voie encore inexplorée ; elles bravaient les périls qui menacent toujours les novateurs et les débutants. Et néanmoins, dans beaucoup d'industries où elles se sont établies, elles constituent déjà pour les anciennes maisons une rivalité redoutable, qui suscite même des plaintes nombreuses dans une partie de la bourgeoisie, non pas seulement chez les traiteurs, les limonadiers et les coiffeurs, c'est-à dire dans les industries où la nature des produits permet aux associations de compter sur la clientèle démocratique, mais dans d'autres industries où elles n'ont pas les mêmes avantages. On n'a qu'à consulter par exemple les fabricants de fauteuils, de chaises, de limes, et

* Pp. 37-8.

l'on saura d'eux si les établissements les plus importants en leurs genres de fabrication ne sont pas les établissements des associés."

The vitality of these associations must indeed be great, to have enabled about twenty of them to survive not only the anti-socialist reaction, which for the time discredited all attempts to enable workpeople to be their own employersnot only the tracasseries of the police, and the hostile policy of the government since the usurpation-but in addition to these obstacles, all the difficulties arising from the trying condition of financial and commercial affairs from 1854 to 1858. Of the prosperity attained by some of them even while passing through this difficult period, I have given examples which must be conclusive to all minds as to the brilliant future reserved for the principle of co-operation.

It is not in France alone that these associations have commenced a career of prosperity. To say nothing at present of Piedmont or of Germany, England can. produce cases of success rivalling even those which I have cited from France. Under the impulse commenced by Mr. Owen, and more recently propagated by the writings and personal efforts of a band of friends, chiefly clergymen and barristers, to whose noble exertions too much praise can scarcely be given, the good seed was widely sown; the necessary alterations in the English law of partnership were obtained from Parliament, on the benevolent and public-spirited initiative of Mr. Slaney; many industrial associations, and a still greater number of co-operative stores for retail purchases, were founded. Among these are already many instances of remarkable prosperity, the most signal of which are the Leeds Flour Mill, and the Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers. Of this last association, the most successful of all, the history has been written in a very interesting manner by Mr. Holyoake;* and the notoriety which by this and other means has been given to facts so encouraging, is caus

* Self-help by the People-History of Co-operation in Rochdale.

ing a rapid extension of associations with similar objects in Lancashire and Yorkshire.

The original capital of the Rochdale Society consisted of 287., brought together by the unassisted economy of about forty labourers, through the slow process of a subscription of twopence (afterwards raised to threepence) per week. With this sum they established in 1844 a small shop, or store, for the supply of a few common articles for the consumption of their own families. As their carefulness and honesty brought them an increase of customers and of subscribers, they extended their operations to a greater number of articles of consumption, and in a few years were able to make a large investment in shares of a Cooperative Corn Mill. Mr. Holyoake thus relates the stages of their progress up to 1857.

"The Equitable Pioneer's Society is divided into seven departments: Grocery, Drapery, Butchering, Shoemaking, Clogging, Tailoring, Wholesale.

"A separate account is kept of each business, and a general account is given each quarter, showing the position of the whole.

"The grocery business was commenced as we have related, in December 1844, with only four articles to sell. It now includes whatever a grocer's shop should include.

"The drapery business was started in 1847, with an humble array of attractions. In 1854 it was erected into a separate department.

"A year earlier, 1846, the Store began to sell butchers' meat, buying eighty or one hundred pounds of a tradesman in the town. After a while, the sales were discontinued until 1850, when the Society had a warehouse of its own. Mr. John Moorhouse, who has now two assistants, buys and kills for the Society three oxen, eight sheep, sundry porkers and calves, which are on the average converted into 1307. of cash per week.

"Shoemaking commenced in 1852. Three men and an apprentice make, and a stock is kept on sale.