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52. As to Persons.-Some illegal relation must be entered into, or if the relation is legal, some unlawful act must be done by one party against the other, or by both parties against a third. All relations, we have seen, arise out of a voluntary compact. Consequently, for anything illegal to exist, it must be the fault of both, as in contracting an unlawful marriage; a wrong done by one party against the other, as in those who assume the legislative or executive power, without being appointed by all the governed; or, a wrong done, by both parties against a third, as in a nation having a righteous government, both the governors and governed causing another country to be invaded, without just grounds.

53. As to Property.-Some must be held by those to whom it does not of right belong; or some exists the ownership to which is not ascertainable. It is here only necessary to speak of the land. Any not yet appropriated by man may be entered upon by any persons of the human race, who believe they can do their duty better by founding a new nation, as has been the case ever since the flood. On the land thus entered upon, a national constitution and code should be established and maintained, in accordance with the twelfth Canon. Such code assigns to every man an equal portion of the land with all the rest of his fellows. And thus it should be in all nations and ages.

54. The existence, therefore, of any of the matters mentioned with regard to persons are obviously all contraventions of the first Canon. And as no land can be lawfully held by those to whom it does not of right belong, nor is there any on the whole globe to which the ownership is not ascertainable: so, under the divine law, there can be no such thing as an imperfect obligation or right, in reference either to persons or things.

XV.

55. Where there are no human laws, as in the case of mariners thrown on land, not previously inhabited, it is incumbent on men, in all things rigorously to obey the first Canon.

XVI.

56. Every man, of whatever nation he may be, or in whatever age he may live,-if the constitution and code of laws under which he lives, do not conform to the divine law, should do all that lies in him to produce such conformity; and when that is attained, he is bound to defend such constitution and code with his life.

This is evident from considering, that all men, in all nations and in all ages, being under the divine law, and this therefore being the sole rule of their conduct; and so, as has been intimated, the obligation of every man that cometh into the world, being exactly similar to that of every other man :-if it is not the duty of every man to see that the constitution and code under which he lives, is in accordance with the will of the Most High, i. e. as expressed in the first Canon,-it is not the duty of any man. On which supposition, it is not incumbent on men, in any country or age, to establish over themselves a righteous constitution and code; nor, consequently, to repress the unrighteousness, which it is the business of government to keep down; an opinion for which none, it is presumed, will be found to contend.

XVII.

57. Every man, of whatever nation or age he may be, after having ineffectually done all that legally lies in him, that the constitution and code under which he lives, in their appointment and maintenance, shall conform to the first Canon, is next bound to do all that lies in him, that his own conduct may accord with such Canon; this being his duty, whatever the laws of his country may be.

As though it may not be in the power of any one man to cause the unrighteous constitution and code of his country to be superseded by those which are righteous, he can, to a certain extent, regulate his own conduct; it being obvious that, if men, because the laws under which they live are not righteous, may contravene the divine law with impunity-as, for example, in holding large quantities of land, to the unlawful exclusion of others, it will never be incumbent on them to have such unrighteous laws superseded by those which are righteous: i. e. in conformity with the first Canon; but this is not to be supposed.

XVIII.

58. It is also incumbent on every man to conform to the first Canon, in matters not cognizable by human laws. In all places, and under all circumstances, it being the duty of all men to do all that lies in them— even, if necessary, to the sacrifice of their lives, i, e. so that the glory of God will be thereby promoted,-that

this Canon shall be universally and rigorously obeyed; both as to the things which are, and are not, cognizable by human laws.

Consequently, all men, in all countries, are bound to lend all possible assistance to all others obeying the first Canon, though the latter may have no claim whatever on the former, in accordance with human laws; and, beyond this, men are bound to assist others under certain limitations, though they are not only, not actively obeying, but actively infringing such Canon. As poor persons, though thus engaged, are not to be permitted to starve, because the Great Creator, who alone called them into existence, alone knows when to call them from it; and though such persons act unrighteously at any given period, they may repent and become eminent examples of that which is good.

59. Had all men, every where, from the foundation of the world, obeyed the divine law,-all the members of association, under the divine blessing, educing nothing but good to each other, acts of mercy would have had no place, because none would have needed them; nor would that stupendous act of the divine compassion, the sacrifice of the Son of God, have been required, as there would have been no guilt to propitiate: but man having followed the example of the angels, which kept not their first estate, (Jude 6.) and thus guilt and misery having entered the world, in the fall of our first parents, and been continued in it by their posterity, the divine law, as far as relates to our conduct to each other, divides itself into the two great branches of justice and mercy. With regard to the latter, it being imperative on us to follow the example of our Lord, it is obvious there can be no measure or degree of that which requires the sacrifice of all that men have, even to laying down their lives for each other. (John xv. 12, 13.)

60 The mercy we are ready to evince for each other, when suitable occasions present themselves, must therefore be absolutely without bounds; and that none may be rendered unable to do justice to others, through any oppressive conduct on our part, we should be desirous, for example, in all our commercial dealings, to give 'good measure, pressed down, and shaken together, and running over;' (Luke vi. 38.) and, when the glory of God will thereby be promoted, not only to remit to others, all those things which we might in strict justice have demanded; but, beyond this, as far as we are able, liberally to administer, both in temporal and spiritual things, in all the kind offices men require at the hands of each other; as he must expect judgment without mercy, that hath shewed no mercy ;' (James ii. 13.) in oppressing any of his brethren, either politically, commercially, or otherwise; or in not remitting what he might justly have demanded, when requisite; or in forbear

ing to do any act of kindness incumbent on the faithful servants of heaven. In this way alone can the divine law be obeyed; though, of course, nothing here said is to be imagined as encouraging, in the remotest degree, any unrighteousness or ungodliness whatever, in those who require acts of mercy to be shewn them.

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61. In the Mosaic Code, a malediction is thus pronounced against the Hebrews. Cursed be he that confirmeth not all the words of this law to do them.' And in reference to the Christian dispensation, Paul observes, He that despised Moses' law, died without mercy under two or three witnesses. Of how much sorer punishment, suppose ye, shall he be thought worthy, who hath trodden under foot the Son of God, and hath counted the blood of the covenant, wherewith he was sanctified, an unholy thing, and hath done despite unto the Spirit of grace? Whosoever,' therefore, as has been said, shall keep the whole' of the divine law, and yet offend in one point, he is guilty of all.' We must, therefore, join in the curse pronounced against the violators of the less noble dispensation, and say, in reference to the divine law; Cursed be he that confirmeth not all the words of this law to do them.' As all have sinned, and come short of the glory of God; and, consequently, all are under the curse;' we cannot sufficiently adore his goodness, that he hath made for men 'a way to escape' it, by the all-sufficient propitiation of his beloved Son; though, of course, it does not follow that men are to sin purposely, that the sufferings of the Son of God may propitiate their wickedness ;-as the permission of Heaven for men to do this, would only be encouraging iniquity, which we cannot suppose, it would be in any way a party to. All should humbly endeavour to obey the divine law; and those who do, may therefore thus be addressed :-What shall ye say then? shall ye continue in sin that grace may abound ? " God forbid. How shall ye that are dead to sin, live any longer therein?' 'Now being made free from sin, and become servants to God, ye have your fruit unto holiness, and the end everlasting life. For the wages of sin is death; but the gift of God is eternal life, through Jesus Christ our Lord.'

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CHAP. II.

THE VARIOUS MODES OF ASSOCIATION.

An inquiry into the laws which regulate the production of wealth, is, in fact, an inquiry into the laws which regulate national prosperity and national decay; civilization and barbarism. (Popular Pol. Econ., by Thomas Hodgskin.)

1. From the creation to the deluge, and thence to the present time-the one period commencing with Adam, and the other with Noah-we may suppose, that the immediate descendants of those persons continued for some time acknowledging them and their heirs, both as parents and political governors. Such a form may thence be called the paternal government. At later periods, separations in both cases took place among men, the several portions having a distinct government; some of these again united, and others dissolved their unions; and separation has continued down to the present time. Some portions of the great family of mankind were compelled to expatriate themselves; whilst others have been unwillingly obliged to submit to a union with their invaders. Hence, therefore, the rise of all the nations of the world. History informs us that these things have sometimes so happened, but it obviously contains an account of but a small part of the transactions of mankind.

2. All nations of the earth, in all ages, are under the divine government; just as the various provinces of a nation are under a human government; the great difference being, that the latter is ever in a less or greater degree imperfect, whilst the government of God is ever absolutely perfect; all that is faulty among men arising solely from disobedience of the divine law.

3. It has been said that men cannot live out of association ; hence, every thing is done by it. Thus, we have associations for the purposes of commerce, of instruction, of war. All the persons that constitute a nation, and thus live under a distinct political government, may, as has been already remarked, be termed a primary association. This has the whole political right within itself. Commercial, and other associations, may be termed secondary ones; these, therefore, are parts of the primary association, or smaller ones within the greater.

4. All the members of a primary association are separated into two great divisions; the productive, and the non-productive. However important some of the latter may be to their

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