variance with the profound differences in the constitutional and moral characteristics of these great cities.

Though there were more uniformity than there is among the established phenomena, they would be surely too narrow for conclusions so grand. They include only such of the manufactures of the ancient races as are durable and preservable. In mercantile phrase, they include the hard goods only, leaving textile fabrics and other elements of civilisation a blank. And even in their narrow limits one could show incidental inversions of their conclusions from modern facts. Basins, dishes, and vases made of stone, of course belong to the stone period; when men used bronze, they also found out the facility of making their vessels in the ductile clay which they could afterwards harden. But even in the present day there is a reaction towards cutting vessels out of stone, and that not only the easierworked serpentines and marbles, but granite, porphyry, and chalcedony, and this from the great progress of mechanical power, which enables us to cut and turn these stones, and bring out the brilliant polish they are capable of taking. In concluding these remarks, it would be unworthy to forget that in pursuit of their theories the northern archæologists have made great discoveries, and given wonderful assistance to the classification of our knowledge as to the past inhabitants of Europe.1

1 The bulk of the material of this part of his History the Author has derived from his own personal observation of the objects referred to—observations running pretty far back. He has not hesitated, however, to avail himself of the aid to be found in such works as Wilson's Prehistoric Annals. This book may be specially commended to those who wish to dwell on a topic which has charms for many. The reader who wants to have his knowledge closely packed like a soldier's knapsack. may not like it; but to those who enjoy archæological exposition and exemplification, the discursiveness of the book is a great merit.

CHAPTER IV.

The Unrecorded Ages.

(Continued.)

;

OBJECTS SUPPOSED TO BE CONNECTED WITH RELIGION- -STONE CIRCLES OTHER UNTOOLED MONUMENTS-VASTNESS OF THE FIELD OF THE UNKNOWN AND CONJECTURAL-NARROWNESS OF THE KNOWN-DISCONNECTION OF THE UNWORKED WITH THE SCULPTURED STONES-THE SCULPTURES OF THE EAST AND OF THE WEST COAST-NATURE OF THE SEVERAL KINDS OF SCULPTURE THEIR MYSTERIOUSNESS SOLUTIONS OFFERED FROM AFAR OTHERS NEARER HOME-CHARACTERISTICS AS A SCHOOL OF DECORATIVE ART-PROGRESS IN ENGLAND-WIDER DIFFUSION IN THE WEST OF SCOTLAND AND IRELAND-PASSES INTO THE ILLUMINATION OF MSS.-EXAMINED BY GERMAN CRITICS AS A SCOTTISH SCHOOL OF DECORATIVE ART.

IT has been thought fit to reserve for separate notice those ancient memorials which, from peculiarities in their character, are supposed to have been connected with the worship of the people, or with other public purposes. It is convenient to look to these after all the other relics of the unrecorded ages have been exhausted, because they are a connection between the unrecorded and the historical period, carrying us insensibly over the one into the other. These memorials generally consist of great stones, some of them in the state of native rock, with no mark of man's handiwork on

them, and no evidence that they had been touched by man, except the artificial nature of their position; while others bear inscriptions, sculptures, and other testimonies to the hand of the workman. Unworked stone monuments abound in Scotland, and are found in all the arrangements into which they have been divided by archæologists, with so little to reward them for their analytical labours. We have the Circles, the Altars, the Cromlechs or groups of stones laid against each other and across, the Logans or rocking-stones, the Dolmens, and the Monoliths, as they have been lately termed, or great unhewn pillars standing alone. The most conspicuous groups are at Stenness in Orkney, and Callernish in the Lewis; but others are to be found more or less abundantly over all parts of Scotland, except the regions of the higher mountains. In the north they are found chiefly to abound near the east coast; but after crossing the Tay the preponderance is westward, and they are found in all their varieties on the diluvial plain between Lochawe and the Crinan Canal.

It would be wasteful to enter on a specific description of a class of monuments, the characteristics of which have been discussed at so much length by a succession of authors whose labours have been continued over nearly three centuries. The most observable specialty in the Scotch specimens is their infinite variety, which has driven almost desperate the inquirers who have expected to make the classification of specimens tell us how or for what purpose these mysterious monuments came into existence. The circles are single or multiplied; the latter are concentric and eccentric, without revealing any reason why they should so radically differ. While some groups are oval or elliptical,

others seem to aim at the pure circle. Among their eccentricities the great group at Callernish takes the shape of a cross, and might pass for a Christian monument if it did not bear the almost certain evidence of an antiquity far beyond the conversion of the people of the district, or even the Christian era itself.

It has been an established custom to characterise these monuments as Druidical, and to speak of them as temples, altars, and what not, used in their ceremonials by the Druidical priests. We shall presently see how far it is likely that there ever were Druids in Scotland. But though we should believe that the country swarmed with them, it would require separate evidence, of which there is not the smallest vestige, to prove that they had anything to do with these stone monuments. The early references to the existence of Druids in Northern Europe, and the present knowledge of the existence of these rough stone monuments, are two sets of phenomena which have nothing to do the one with the other. Between them there is a gulf fixed which has not been spanned, because the historical conditions out of which learning and sagacity could unite them have not been found to exist. It is possible to think that these grey monuments of longburied generations draw more solemn associations from the dead mystery in which they are thus buried, than from the tawdry stage-decorations of Druidism— the white robes, the mistletoe, and the golden sickle.

Some forty years ago there arose a reaction against the Druidical theories, and a strong push was made to connect these rough monuments with the invasions of the Scandinavian nations. This view got incidental support from some facts, a feature of which the Druid

ical theory was entirely destitute. High ground was taken, and from some of the descriptions of the old heathen temples in the Eddas, it was inferred that they were erected within great stone circles. A theory so ambitious had, however, to be abandoned. It was not only that the descriptions of the edifices very imperfectly conformed to the existing monuments, but the question arose, how was it that these were so rife in the more outlying provinces of the Scandinavian tribes, and so scanty in their central districts? Still there were facts connecting the Scandinavians with the island specimens of these monuments. The Ting, or local parliament, would be held within the circle: judicial combats were held there also. They were places of mark, in short, for public purposes.' This at the utmost, however, only showed the use they were put to as remarkable monuments, or, if we may use such a term, public buildings; it throws no light on their origin or its object. In later times we have evidence still more distinct of their having been put to use. The usual name by which such monuments have since very early times been known in their own respective districts is "The Stannin' Stanes," or standing stones; and by such a term they occur in old chartularies. For instance, in the year 1349, a certain William de St Michael and others, accused of usurping lands and rights belonging to the Bishopric of Aberdeen, are cited to appear at a court to be held at the

1 The learning on this connection will be found at length in a "Memoir on the Tings of Orkney and Shetland," by Dr Hibbert, in the third volume of the Proceedings of the Scots Antiquaries. Even, however, in the evidence of these stone circles being employed as Dr Hibbert makes out, there is an unsatisfactory vagueness which it would be well to disperse if the matter were of higher historical importance.