That Socrates had an attendant spirit, genius, or dæmon, which guarded him from dangers, is asserted by Plato and Antisthenes, who were his contemporaries, and repeated by innumerable authors of antiquity; but what this attendant spirit, genius, or dæmon was, or what we are to understand by it, neither antient nor modern writers have in general been able to determine. There is some disagreement concerning the name, and more concerning the nature of it only it is by most writers agreed, that the advice it gave him was always dissuasive; "never impelling," says Cicero," but often restraining him." It is commonly named his dæmon, by which title he himself is supposed to have owned it. Plato sometimes calls it his guardian, and Apuleius his god; because the name of dæmon, as St. Austin tells us, at last grew odious. As for the sign or manner, in which this dæmon or genius foretold, and by foretelling, guarded him against evils to come, nothing certain can be collected about it. Plutarch, who rejects some popular absurdities upon the subject, conjectures, first, that it might be an apparition; but at last concludes, that it was his observation of some inarticulate unaccustomed sound or voice, conveyed to him in an extraordinary way, as happens in dreams. Others confine this foreknowledge of evils within the soul of Socrates himself; and when he said that "his genius advised him," think that he only meant that "his mind foreboded and so inclined him." But this is inconsistent with the description which Socrates himself gives of a voice and signs from without. Lastly, some conceive it to be one of those spirits that have a particular care of men; which Maximus Tyrius and Apuleius describe in such a manner, that they want only the name of a good angel; and this Lactantius has supplied; for, after proving that God sends angels to guard mankind, he adds, "and Socrates affirmed that there was a dæmon constantly near him, which had kept him company from a child, and by whose beck and instruction he guided his life." Such are the varieties of opinion entertained upon this singular subject, which, however, have arisen chiefly out of the prevalence of Platonic ideas, and the desire of exalting Socrates beyond all reason. The account given by Xenophon, the strictest and truest Socratic, and confirmed by some passages in Plutarch's treatise "De Genio Socratis," is perhaps clear and reasonable. It is plainly this, that, believing in the gods of his country, and the

divinations commonly in use, Socrates, when he took an omen, said that he proceeded by divine, intimation. This he did out of piety, thinking it more respectful to the gods to refer the suggestion to them, than to the voice or other intermediate sign by which they conveyed it. His phrase on this occasion was, τὸ δαιμόνιον αὐτῷ σημαίνειν, which being in some degree ambiguous, as dauónov might mean either the divine power abstractedly, or some particular deity, his enemies took advantage of it to accuse him of introducing new deities; and his friends to indulge the vanity of boasting that he had an attendant dæmon. This account may be seen at full length, supported by many arguments and proofs from the original authors, in a little tract on this subject, published in 1782 *.

In the days of this philosopher, the Sophists were the great and leading men; the masters of languages, as Cicero calls them; who arrogantly pretended to teach every thing, and persuaded the youth to resort only to them. With these Socrates carried on perpetual warfare: he attacked them constantly with his usual interrogatories; and, by his skill and subtilty in disputation, exposed their sophistry, and refuted their principles. He took all opportunities of proving that they had gained a much greater portion of esteem than they had a right to claim; that they were only vain affecters of words; that they had no knowledge of the things they professed to teach; and that, instead of taking money of others for teaching, they should themselves give money to be taught. The Athenians were pleased to see the Sophists thus checked; were brought at length to deride them; and, at the instigation of Socrates, withdrew their children from them, and excited them to the study of solid virtue under better masters.

The able writer of this tract, Mr. archdeacon Nares, remarks that Socrates believed in the gods of his country, and was not free from the superstition connected with that belief: whence it may be inferred, that, in the expressions usually understood to refer to his dæmon, he alludes only to some species of divination, perfectly analogous to the omens of his age and country. He called the sign, whatever it was, by means of which he supposed intimatious to be communicated to him, a dæmon or divinity. This explanation of the matter is favoured

by a passage in Plutarch's Essay on the Dæmon of Socrates: "How am I guilty of introducing new deities, wheu I say that the voice of the divinity gives me notice what I shall do? Ail men, as well as myself, are of opinion that the deity foresees the future, and signifies it to whom he pleases: but the difference between us is this; they name the omens as the foretellers of what is to come; I call the same thing the divinity, and herein speak more truly and respectfully than they who attribute to birds the power which belongs to the gods."

The altercations that Socrates had with the Sophists therefore gained him respect, and made him popular with the Athenians; but he had a private quarrel with one Anytus, which, after many years continuance, was the occasion of his death. Anytus was an orator by profession, a sordid and avaricious man, who was privately maintained and enriched by leather-sellers. He had placed two of his sons under Socrates, to be taught; but, because they had not acquired such knowledge from him as to enable them to get their living by pleading, he took them away, and put them to the trade of leather-selling. Socrates, displeased with this illiberal treatment of the young men, whose ruin he presaged at the same time, reproached, and exposed Anytus in his discourses to his scholars. Anytus, hurt by this, studied all means of revenge; but feared the Athenians, who highly reverenced Socrates, as well on account of his great wisdom and virtue, as for the particular opposition which he had made to those vain babblers the Sophists. He therefore advised with Melitus, a young orator; from whose counsel he began, by making trial in smaller things, to sound how the Athenians would entertain a charge against his life. He suborned the comic poet Aristophanes, to ridicule him and his doctrines in his celebrated comedy called "The Clouds." Socrates, who seldom went to the theatre, except when Euripides, whom he admired, contested with any new tragedian, was present at the acting. of "The Clouds;" and stood up all the while in the most conspicuous part of the theatre. One that was present asked him if he was not vexed at seeing himself brought upon the stage? "Not at all," answered he: "I am only. a host at a public festival, where I provide a large company with entertainment."

Many years having passed from the first disagreement between Socrates and Anytus, at length Anytus, observing a fit conjuncture, procured Melitus to prefer a bill against him to the senate in these terms: Melitus, son of Melitus, a Pythean, accuses Socrates, son of Sophroniscus, an Alopecian. Socrates violates the law, not believing the deities which this city believes, but introducing other new gods. He violates the law likewise in corrupting youth: the punishment death." This bill being preferred upon oath, Crito became bound to the judges for his appearance at the day of trial; till which Socrates employed himself in his usual philosophical

exercises, taking no care to provide any defence. On the day appointed, Anytus, Lyco, and Melitus, accused him, and Socrates made his own defence, without procuring an advocate, as the custom was, to plead for him. He did not defend himself with the tone and language of a suppliant or guilty person, but with the freedom, firmness, and spirit, of conscious innocence and superior merit. Many of his friends spoke also in his behalf; and, lastly, Plato, then a young man, endeavoured to plead, but while attempting to apologize for his youth, was ordered by the court to sit down. The court then proceeding to vote, they found Socrates guilty by two hundred and eighty-one voices. It was the custom of Athens, as Cicero informs us, when any one was cast, if the fault were not capital, to impose a pecuniary mulct, and the guilty person was asked the highest rate at which he estimated his offence. This was proposed to Socrates, who told the judges, that to pay a penalty was to own an offence; and that, instead of being condemned for what he stood accused, he deserved to be maintained at the public charge out of the Prytanæum. This being the greatest honour the Athenians could confer, the answer so exasperated the judges, that they condemned him to death by eighty votes more.

The sentence being passed, he was sent to prison; which, says Seneca, he entered with the same resolution and firmness with which he had opposed the thirty tyrants; and took away all ignominy from the place, which, adds Seneca, could not be a prison while he was there. On the day of condemnation, it happened that the ship, which was employed to carry a customary annual offering to the island of Delos, set sail, It was contrary to the law of Athens, that, during this voyage, any capital punishment should be inflicted within the city. This circumstance delayed the execution of the sentence against Socrates for thirty days, during which he was constantly visited by Crito, Plato, and other friends, with whom he passed the time in his usual manner. He was often solicited by them to escape, which he not only refused but derided; asking, "if they knew any place out of Attica, whither death would not come." The manner of his death is related by Plato, who was an eye-witness of it; and, as there is not, perhaps, a more affecting picture to be found in antiquity, we will exhibit it here in his own words. Socrates, the day he was to die, had been discoursing to his friends upon the immor

tality of the soul: and, "when he had made an end of speaking, Crito asked him, if he had any directions to give concerning his sons, or other things, in which they could serve him? I desire no more of you,' said Socrates, 'than what I have always told you: if you take care of yourselves, whatsoever you do will be acceptable to me and mine, though you promise nothing; if you neglect yourselves and virtue, you can do nothing acceptable to us, though you promise ever so much.' That,' answered Crito, we will observe; but how will you be buried?' As you think good,' says he, if you can catch me, and I do not give you the slip.' Then, with a smile, applying himself to us, I cannot persuade Crito,' says he, that I am that Socrates who was haranguing just now, or anything more than the carcass you will presently behold; and therefore he is taking all this care of my interment. It seems, that what I just now explained in a long discourse has made no impression at all upon him; namely, that as soon as I shall have drunk the poison, I shall not remain longer with you, but depart immediately to the seats of the blessed. These things, with which I have been endeavouring to comfort you and myself, have been said to no purpose. As, therefore, Crito was bound to the judges for my appearance, so you must now be bound to Crito for my departure; and when he sees my body burnt or buried, let him not say, that Socrates suffers any thing, or is any way concerned: for know, dear Crito, such a mistake were a wrong to my soul. I tell you, that my body is only buried; and let that be done as you shall think fit, or as shall be most agreeable to the laws and customs of the country.' This said, he arose and retired to an inner room; taking Crito with him, and leaving us, who, like orphans, were to be deprived of so dear a father, to discourse upon our own misery. After his bathing, came his wife, and the other women of the family, with his sons, two of them children, one of them a youth; and, when he had given proper directions about his domestic affairs, he dismissed them, and came out to us. It was now near sun-set, for he had staid long within; when coming out he sat down, and did not speak much after. Then entered an officer, and approaching him, said, 'Socrates, I am persuaded, that I shall have no reason to blame you, for what I have been accustomed to blame in others, who have been angry at me, and loaded me with curses, for only doing what the magistrate