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That the idea of something sordid and degrading should be associated with that of pecuniary accuracy, is one of the affectations of a corrupt state of society. Justice in commutation was probably the earliest, as it is the plainest and most familiar case of exact righteousness between man and man. It is therefore a fit representative of whatever is honourable; and it would naturally grow into an established metaphor to denote EQUITY, both in particular cases and in the abstract. Hence also, forms of speech could not but be derived, and extended to the whole range of moral obligation. The obedience of the members of a community to the laws and to the public organ of their administration, would be readily described as a debt due from each individual to the government ; so long as the government maintained its title to obedience, by its own fidelity to the general good. From the language of pecuniary payments probably all nations have formed their customary terms, for expressing the suit and service and all manner of dues, which are owing from every private member of the community to its legal head. It is also obvious that these dues may, by negligence, evasion, or rebellion, be withheld, in part or entirely. In such case, since the original obligation not only is not cancelled, but does not sustain the smallest abatement, it is equally obvious that there accrues an accumulation of obligation and how could this state of things be represented better than by the language of commercial or pecuniary engagement? This mode of expression would be rendered still more appropriate by the fact,

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that a material part of the dues claimed by the wisest and best human governments, is required and paid in money, as being the most convenient instrument of exchange for procuring all other commodities and services. Let it be further considered, that the practice of attaching the persons of debtors, especially on public suit, either as a means of procuring payment or as a punishment for dishonesty, has been generally established in civilized societies; and that such a provision, under proper modifications, appears essential to any efficient system of national law.

In reference to the other source of the metaphor, it is sufficient to observe that, in ancient warfare, the lives of prisoners taken were held to be at the disposal of the conqueror; and that the acceptance of a ransom, to buy back the life and liberty of the prisoner, became generally established, when barbarous maxims were somewhat weakened, and considerations of policy and mercy began to take a permanent hold upon the minds of men.

Upon these foundations the scriptural metaphor under consideration is built; and it was strengthened and made the more familiar and expressive by some parts of the Hebrew code, particularly the law of inheritances. It followed that the language thus established was currently applied to any signal interposition of the power and mercy of the Most High, for the deliverance of men from trouble and misery. Numerous examples occur in the Old Testament, referring to the deliverances from Egypt, from the Babylonish captivity, and from other national oppres

sions.* I shall cite only one example.

"I am Jehovah, thy God, the Holy One of Israel, thy Saviour. I give Egypt for thy ransom, Cush and Seba in thy stead. Since thou art dear in my sight, highly esteemed, and I love thee; therefore I will give men in thy stead, and nations instead of thy life." Is. xliii. 3, 4.† Here the ideas of deliverance, ransom,

*For instance; Exod. xv. 13. Deut. xv. 15. Is. lii. 2. + "A figurative mode of speech, used also in our European languages. When a calamity, which appeared impending over a nation, or had already begun to affect it, actually falls upon another; it is said, that the one became a sacrifice for the other. Stripped of its figure the meaning of the verse is this: Thou shalt be delivered from thy present calamity, but Egypt shall on this very account be overwhelmed with calamity. This took place under the Persian monarchy, which was eminently favourable to the Jews. Cyrus granted them their return to the land of their fathers, and permitted them to rebuild their city and temple. The following kings protected them, in this undertaking, against their enemies, who endeavoured to hinder the slowly proceeding work. Those monarchs also gave them many munificent presents out of the royal treasury; and the Jews never enjoyed such a long duration of peace and prosperity, even in their best times, as they possessed through the two hundred years that they lived under the Persians. No war came within their borders, they worshipped the One God, as his peculiar people, they were objects of favour to the Persian rulers, and probably the example of this nation, which made so grand a figure upon the theatre of the world, had the effect of entirely taking away the propensity of the Jews to idolatry. But the case was altogether the reverse with Egypt. To that country, the Persian dominion was to the last degree oppressive. Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, conquered it, and treated the vanquished people very harshly. He even ordered the bodies of their kings to be dug out of the repositories of the dead, and to be burned. Yet the burning was no indignity, for it was agreeable to the Persian manners and laws. See Herodotus, Book III. chap xv." Michaelis, Uebers. u. Anmerk. See Supplementary Note XXIV.

and substitution are plainly developed. Our Lord also repeatedly represents the forgiveness of sins by the image of remitting debts. Matt. vi. 12. Luke vii. 41-48. The justness of both the metaphors will be apparent from a little consideration.

The holy and righteous government of God cannot connive at sin, in its commission; nor can interpose, by measures of mere will and power, to cut off its entail of just and necessary consequences. But the obligations of sinners to obedience are not in the least degree relaxed by the fact of their disobedience. Their repugnance to the law of God, their rooted unwillingness to comply with his reasonable requirements, can effect no diminution of their duty. That debt is still owing, and is ever accumulating; while there is also the tremendous addition of another obligation, the obligation to abide by the effects of disobedience, as already incurred. This state of twofold obligation is an evident result of the laws of intellectual and moral nature, and the revealed law of the Impartial Ruler, who will "do right" in every respect. No powers of their own can exonerate sinful beings from this state of obligation. The original claim, and the consequences of having violated it, continue to press upon them. But judgment is not immediately enforced. The forbearing mercy of God grants time, and respites execution. The state of waiting, while as yet the awful effects of sin have not fully disclosed themselves, has an obvious resemblance to the state of a captive detained by his enemy, or a debtor in prison, or a convicted criminal chained in his condemned cell.

These images somewhat vary from each other; and it would require little wit or talent, in any profane man, to turn them into burlesque: but an honest mind perceives the general features to be obvious and accordant. Man is insolvent, condemned, and a captive. The detaining power is the Justice of the Divine Government, and a wise regard to the public good. The state of sin involves an actual slavery of the soul. It is taken captive and fettered, misled and abused, by criminal passions. There is also another fact, which adds still further to the propriety and instructive character of this class of metaphors. The state of sin includes a real subjection to the dominion and influence of wicked spirits. The grounds, from both philosophy and revelation, for believing the existence of superior orders of intelligent creatures, and that some of these have become irreclaimably wicked, need not here be stated. That such beings should be both able and disposed to use their powers for the injury of human creatures, is not antecedently more incredible than the existence of deleterious effects on the health and life of men, from the conditions of the atmosphere, and innumerable other physical causes, which science cannot control or even comprehend; or that of a malignant influence, often terminating in utter perdition, exercised by some wicked men upon others, in the various forms of temptation to sin. Hence the principal of these evil beings (who is, by a common and natural metonymy, often mentioned singly when the design of the writer is to include the whole band of his fellow-conspirators,) is

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