| ronis Orationem pro Archia,' Leyden, 1667, 8vo. The works
relating to his travels are:- Insignia Itinerarii Italici,
quibus continentur Antiquitates Sacrae,' Utrecht, 1696, 4to.,
and 'Epistolae Itinerariae, observationibus et figuris ador-
natae.' This work was edited, after the author's death, by
H. C. Hennin, Amsterdam, 1700, 4to., and is of greater use
and interest than the former. There are also some dis-
sertations on antient poets, by Tollius, in Berkelius, 'Dis-
sertationes selectae criticae de Poetis,' Leyden, 1704, 8vo.
(Casp. Burmann, Trajectum Eruditum, p. 368, &c.;
Saxius, Onomasticum Literarium, vol. v., p. 189, &c.)
TOLMEZZO. [UDINE.]

TOLNA, a county in Hungary, in the circle beyond the Danube, is bounded on the north by Vespium and Stuhlweissenburg, on the east by Pesth, on the south by Baranya, and on the west by Szumg. Its area is 1365 square miles, and the number of inhabitants 173.682, chiefly Hungarians and Germans. The eastern part of the county, between the Danube and the Sarwitz, is for the most part. a plain; beyond the Sarwitz there are mountains and hills with broad and fertile valleys. The principal rivers are, the Danube, which separates this county from that of Pesth, the Sarwitz, and the Kapos. In the abovementioned plain, which is one of the largest in Hungary, there is a good deal of sandy soil. On the whole however the country has a very fertile soil, as the abundance and excelexcept on the marshes on the banks of the Sarwitz. The county produces wheat of very fine quality, maize, millet, potatoes, rapeseed, and poppy; from the two last great quantities of oil are made. The cultivation of the vine is very considerable. The dark red wine of Szekszard (or Sexard) in particular, especially the Ausbruch, is celebrated for its strength and aromatic flavour. There is much fruit of various kinds: vast quantities of tobacco are grown; also flax and madder. Oxen and swine are very numerous, and of late years great attention has been paid to the breed of sheep, which has been improved by the introduction of merinos. The fisheries in the rivers are very productive, especially that of the sturgeon in the Danube. The productive land in the county is stated as 526,703 acres; of which 244,008 acres are allotted to agriculture, 44,455 to the vineyards, 7812 to horticulture, and 165,130 acres are covered with forests. The great extent of these forests seems to have led the owners to fancy that they were inexhaustible, so that, as the author of the 'Štatistical and Geographical Description of Hungary, Croatia, and Slavonia' says, 'Count Festetits has not hesitated to fell large tracts for the purpose of making potash, and this in sight of that county in which the inhabitants are in want of wood for fuel, and obliged to use the dung of the cattle.' There are no minerals worth noticing in this county. No manufactories are to be found here, nor ale there any superior schools.

Tollius has been charged by his biographers with having appropriated numerous remarks and emendations on antient authors which he found among the papers of his benefactor Vossius, but how far this is true cannot now be ascertained. (Casp. Burmann, Trajectum Eruditum, p. 367, &c.; Saxius, Onomasticum Literarium, vol. iv., p. 528.) TOLLIUS, JACOB, a brother of Cornelius, was born about 1630, at Utrecht. He received his first education at Deventer, and afterwards studied under G. J. Vossius, who showed him the same kindness which he had before shown to his brother Cornelius. The younger Tollius is charged, and apparently with justice, with having been very ungrateful towards his benefactor, inasmuch as he appropriated to himself much which Vossius had written in illustration of the antient writers. After the death of Vossius, Tollius returned to Utrecht, and became a corrector of the press in the printing establishment of J. Blaeuw, at Amsterdam. He gave perfect satisfaction to his employer, both by his great knowledge and the conscientious dis-lence of its productions evince. The climate too is healthy, charge of his duties. In the meantime D. Heinsius, who was staying at Stockholm, and preparing for a journey to Italy under a commission from Queen Christina, offered to Tollius the place of secretary to the commission. Tollius accepted the offer, and set out for Stockholm in 1662. Being entrusted with the various papers and manuscripts of Heinsius, his old piratical inclination revived; when Heinsius discovered this, and, it would seem, some additional and more serious offences, Tollius was dismissed, and returned to Holland, where after a short time the influence of his friends procured him the office of rector of the gymnasium at Gouda. Here he devoted all his leisure hours to the study of medicine, and in 1669 he obtained the degree of Doctor of Physic. Some dispute between him and the curators of the gymnasium, and his free and unreserved mode of dealing with them, became the cause of his being deprived of his office at Gouda in 1673. After this he for some time practised medicine, and gave private lessons in Latin and Greek at Nordwyk. Finding that he could not gain a subsistence, he again obtained an appointment as teacher at Leyden, but in 1679 he gave up his place for that of professor of history and eloquence in the university of Duisburg. His reputation as a mineralogist was also great; and in the year 1687 the elector of Brandenburg commissioned him to travel through Germany and Italy for the purpose of examining the mines of those countries. It appears that he faithfully discharged this commission. In Italy he was most hospitably received by Cardinal Barberini; and Tollius, who had hitherto not been promoted in his own country as he thought he deserved, secretly embraced the Roman Catholic religion. His long stay in Italy created in Germany some suspicion of his having renounced Protestantism; and on hearing this he hastened, in 1690, from Rome to Berlin. His reception by the elector however was of such a nature that he thought it advisable to leave Berlin and return to Holland. Tollius, being now again without means and employment, opened a school at Utrecht, but it was closed by order of the city authorities. His friends were displeased with his conduct, and forsook him one after another; he sank into deep poverty, and died June 22, 1696.

The works of Tollius are rather numerous, and are partly philological, partly alchymistical, and partly on his travels. Among his alchymistical works are his Fortuita, in quibus praeter critica nonnulla, tota fabularis historia, Graeca, Phoenicia, Aegyptiaca, ad chemiam pertinere asseritur,' Amsterdam, 1688, 8vo. He published an edition of Ausonius, Amsterdam, 1671, which is the Variorum edition of Ausonius, and is still very useful; and also an edition of Longinus, Utrecht, 1694, 4to., with notes and a Latin translation. Tollius translated into Latin the Italian work of Bacchini, De Sistris,' Utrecht, 1696, and the account of antient Rome, by Nardini, both of which are incorporated in Graevius, Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanarum,' vols. iv. and vi. He is also the author of Gustus Animadversionum Criticarum ad Longinum cum Observatis in CiceP. C. N, 1550.

The principal towns are-Szekszard, the chief town, situated near the river Sarwitz, over which there is a long and very handsome bridge; it is tolerably well built, and has above 8000 inhabitants. The principal buildings are the Roman Catholic church and the county-hall, situated on a hill. 2, Földvar, on the Danube, pleasantly situated partly on a hill, partly on the declivity of it; the population is above 9000, who are engaged in agriculture, the cultivation of the vine, and the sturgeon fishery. It is the chief town of the district of Tolna, and has a Roman Catholic school. 3, Tolna, on the Danube, with about 2000 inhabitants (though Blumenbach says 4700), was formerly a more considerable place than it now is. A diet was held here in the year 1518. The inhabitants live by the fishery and the manufacture of potash: there are numerous mills on the Danube: a great deal of strong glue is made here. 4, Paks, a large and handsome market-town on the Danube, with 7300 inhabitants; much wine is made here, and the fishery employs many of the inhabitants. Many nobles and Jews live in this town. 5, Ozora, a market-town, with 3200 inhabitants, belonging to Prince Esterhazy: a large castle is used partly as a magazine, partly as a prison: here is a considerable stud and extensive sheep-walks. (Blumenbach, Gemälde der Oesterreichischen Monarchie; Neueste Beschreibung von Ungern; Hassel; Stein; Cannabich.)

TOLOME'I, CLA'UDIO, born at Siena, of a noble family, in 1492, studied the law in his native town, and afterwards went to Rome, where he founded an academy VOL. XXV.-F

called Della Virtù,' of which Caro, Molza, Flaminio, and other learned men of Rome became members, and one of the purposes of which was the illustration of Vitruvias and the encouragement of architecture. Tolomei afterwards conceived the idea of introducing into the Italian poetry the Latin metre of the hexameters and pentameters, and he published rules and specimens for the purpose: Versi e Regole della nuova Poesia Toscana,' Rome, 1539. But this innovation, which had been already attempted by Leone Battista Alberti, did not succeed, and the Italian hexameters and pentameters soon fell into oblivion. Here is a specimen of one of the distichs :

Ecco 'l | chiaro ri | o, pien | eccolo d'acque so I avi; Ecco di verdi erbe | carca la | terra ri | de.' Tolomei was for a time in the service of the cardinal Ippolito d'Este, who sent him on a mission to Vienna in 1532. He afterwards attached himself to the court of Pier Luigi Farnese, son of Pope Paul III., and duke of Castro, and followed him to Piacenza, when Pier Luigi was created duke of Parma and Piacenza. After the tragical death of Pier Luigi, in 1547, Tolomei returned to Rome, where he lived in straitened circumstances, until his countrymen of Siena chose him, in 1552, for their ambassador to Henri II. of France, who protected the independence of that republic, threatened by the Medici and by Charles V. Tolomei repaired to Compiègne, where he delivered an oration to the king in presence of his court, which was afterwards published: Orazione recitata dinanzi al Re di Francia Enrico II. à Compiègne,' Paris, 1553. He died soon after his return to Rome, in 1554. He wrote several other orations in Italian, one of which, entitled 'Orazione della Pace,' Rome, 1534, has been most praised; a dialogue upon the Italian language; and several volumes of letters, which are the most interesting part of his writings Lettere di Claudio Tolomei, libri vii.,' 4to., Venice, 1547, afterwards repeatedly reprinted. He is one of the best letter-writers in the Italian language; his letters embrace a variety of subjects, scientific and philosophical, and his style is comprehensive and full of meaning. His correspondence was choice, and yet extensive. The edition of 1547 contains an important letter to his friend Gabriele Cesano, about the manner of making the government of a state durable and permanent, which letter has been left out in the subsequent editions. In another letter, addressed to Count Lando, he suggests the plan of several philological and archæological works for the illustration of Vitruvius. (Corniani, Secoli della Letteratura Italiana; Tiraboschi, Storia della Letteratura Italiana.)

of an Indian's weapons, inasmuch as they are a matter of luxury, and useful for cutting his firewood, &c., in time of peace, and deadly weapons in time of war, which they use in the hand, or throw with unerring and deadly aim.' TOMATO. [SOLANUM.]

TOMB (in Greek, riubos; Latin, Tumba; Italian, Tomba: French, Tombe and Tombeau) signifies, in its strict meaning, a mass of masonry or stone-work raised immediately over a grave or vault used for interment; but it is often applied, in a wider sense, to any sepulchral structure. Works of either of these two classes constitute an important branch of archæological study, inasmuch as they supply so many and such various materials for it, not only as regards the arts of painting and sculpture, but the objects described by them, and a number of utensils and manufactured articles discovered in such repositories. It is sufficient to mention the tombs of Egypt and of Etruria, in both of which interesting discoveries have been made of late years. The Christian catacombs [CATACOMBS] have likewise furnished much towards the history of art; and the tombs and sepulchral monuments of the middle ages, down almost to our own times, are valuable monuments, either as specimens of architecture and sculpture, singly or combined; or as handing down to us inscriptions and dates, and portraits and effigies of historical personages. Of primitive sepulchres there are two classes-both of such high antiquity, that it is doubtful which is entitled to precedence-one of which may be distinguished by the general term Hypogaan, that is, subterraneous and excavated; the other, by that of Hypergaan, that is, aboveground, or raised mounds or tumuli heaped over the dead. Monuments of the first kind are very numerous in Egypt, where they occur in every variety, from the simple rockhewn tomb to the extensive royal sepulchres consisting of numerous galleries and chambers. The other class presents itself in the Pyramids, which, though far more artificial in form and construction, nad no doubt a common origin with the Tumulus [TUMULUS], which occurs under various designations in every part of the globe.

The extraordinary labour bestowed in excavating or con structing these antient sepulchres is perhaps not so surpris ing as the lavishness with which the antients embellished the subterraneous abodes of the dead, not only adorning them with polychromy and paintings, but depositing in them the most costly and exquisitely-wrought articles. In this respect there was a striking similarity between the practice of the Egyptians and that of the Etrurians, nor is the coincidence the less remarkable from such practice being contrary to that of the comparatively modern Greeks and Romans, whose tombs and sepulchres were chiefly archiEgyptian architecture and art some of the most astonishing memorials are entombed within the earth. Among these are what are called the Tombs of the Egyptian Kings,' at Bibân el Molouk, in one of which Belzoni discovered the sarcophagus, or tomb, properly so termed, which is now in the Soanean Museum. In respect to the architecture of these subterraneous works, the arrangement of their plans is precisely the reverse of that of the temples, in which the parts are successively contracted in space, that last reached being the smallest of all [EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE, p. 316]; whereas in these tombs the entrance passages are narrow, and the first chambers are smaller than those to which they lead. The numerous paintings found in these tombs describe with minuteness the social life and manners of the people, their banquets, their festivals, their amusements, their costume, their furniture, their arts, and the various utensils and implements employed in them. These records prove not only the perfection the mechanic arts had attained, but also the luxu

TOLO'SA, a district of the province of Guipuzcoa, in Spain. Tolosa, supposed to be the antient Iturisa, is not only the capital of the district, but that of the whole pro-tectural erections intended for external display. Of vince. It is situated in the middle of a deep valley formed by the two mountains of Ernio and Loazu, and on the banks of two small rivers called Oria and Arages, which join their waters close to the town: 43° 8' N. lat., 2° 12′ W. long. The town is well built, and clean, like most towns in Biscay; the streets are tolerably wide and straight. There are three squares, the principal of which (Plaza Mayor,, which serves also as an arena for bull-fights, is very fine. Tolosa has few antient buildings, and none that is worthy the attention of the artist. During the late civil war the Pretender Don Carlos often resided in Tolosa. The population, according to Miñano (vol. viii., p. 462), amounted only to 6000 souls in 1827.

TOLSEY. [TOLL.]

TOLU, BALSAM OF. [MYROSPERMUM.] TOLUCA. [MEXICAN STATES, vol. xv., p. 160.] TOMAHAWK, an Indian hatchet. Dr. Webster, of New York, who gives the above definition in his Dietionary of the English Language,' gives the word also as a verb, meaning to cut or kill with a hatchet called a toma-rious refinement of those remote ages. The same remark hawk.' Catlin, in his recent work on the Manners, Customs, applies to the paintings and frescoes in the subterraneous and Condition of the North American Indians (vol. i., p. 236, tombs and sepulchral chambers discovered since 1827 at plate 99), states that the tomahawks of Indian manu- Corneto, on the site of the antient Tarquinii, at Vulci, facture are, like other native weapons, headed with stone, Toscanella, Bomarzo, Cere, Val d'Asso, and other places but that the ordinary metal blades or heads are of civilized in the antient Etruria. The number of these tombs is very manufacture, made expressly for Indian use, carried into great. About two thousand have been opened, and from the Indian country by thousands and tens of thousands, and these have been obtained, besides upwards of five thousand sold at an enormous price.' The handles are usually made painted terracottas and vases, an immense quantity of by the Indians themselves, and are often highly ornamented. other articles of almost every description,-military Some tomahawks are formed with a bowl for burning to-weapons, tripods and sacrificial utensils, candelabra of afl bacco in the head, and a hole through the handle to serve for a pipe. These,' Catlin observes, are the most valued

patterns and dimensions, sarcophagi, couches, sculptures, inscriptions, &c., together with bracelets, rings, ear-rings,

and other ornaments of dress, some of them of the most | ture is also square, but is distinguished from the lower tasteful design and exquisite workmanship.* The greater part by pilasters, pannels with inscriptions, and other archiportion of these antiquities are deposited in the new Museo tectural decorations: some of these have an upper sepulGregoriano at Rome; but no inconsiderable number of chral chamber, others a subterraneous one also, or one them have found their way into other collections, espe- below the level of the ground. cially those of Berlin and Münich. If not the most valuable part of the spoils obtained from the Etrurian tombs, the paintings on their walls were not the least interesting, especially when first discovered; for since that time they have all suffered by exposure to the air. While they are for the most part more carefully and better executed than the Egyptian paintings, they are equally curious, inasmuch as they are almost the only existing records of a people respecting whom history has preserved very little. One of the most interesting sepulchral chambers yet opened is that which has been named, from the subjects represented on its walls, the Camera del Triclinio e del Ballo.' In the Triclinio,' or banquet scene, are three couches, with a male and female figure upon each, crowned with wreaths of ivy and myrtle, and richly attired. Everything bespeaks luxurious refinement, the embroidered table-cloth, and draperies on the couches, the rich dresses of the attendants, the quantity and variety of the vessels heaped up on the sideboard, and the number of dishes with which the table is set out. Nor does the other scene convey a less favourable idea of the gaiety and liveliness of an Etruscan dance. The subjects of some of the paintings that have been discovered are however of a very different character; and as a contrast to the above may be mentioned those in what is distinguished by the name of the Camera de' Morti,' at Tarquinii; one of which represents a procession of the dead, conducted by genii to their final judgment. These and other paintings are described in Mrs. Hamilton Gray's Tour to the Sepulchres of Etruria;' and a very interesting account of the tombs and their contents has been given by Carlo Avvolta, in the Annali dell' Instituto di Corrispondenza Archeologica, per l'anno 1829.' Of Etruscan art generally, Winckelmann speaks in the third book of his Geschichte der Kunst,' but in his time only a few of the tombs had been opened.

At other places in Etruria-Orchia, the modern Norchia, and Axia, now called Castel d'Asso-the tombs are hewn out on the sides of rocks and hills, and present an architectural frontispiece or façade forming their entrance, as is the case with many Egyptian tombs, and likewise with those which are found in Lycia and other parts of Asia Minor. Many of the Lycian tombs have columns and entablatures to their façades wrought out of the solid rock. Some of the Lycian tombs however are upright insulated structures, either plain or decorated with pilasters and other ornaments, with roofs whose section is a pointed arch, after the fashion of some of the Indian monuments, owing to which they present a striking combination of Oriental and Grecian forms. Of sepulchres with temple-shaped façades there are two examples at Orchia, one of them a tetrastyle, the other a distyle in antis. Both partake of the Grecian Doric character, yet deviate from it greatly in two particulars: first, in the great height of the pediment; secondly, in the great width of the intercolumns. What now remains of the columns themselves is only sufficient to show their number and situation; yet that they were hewn out of the rock, like the entablature and pediment, scarcely admits of question.

Vitruvius says nothing on the subject of sepulchres and tombs, either Grecian or Roman; yet sepulchral edifices are still very numerous throughout Latium and Magna Græcia, and many of them must originally have been very conspicuous objects, and not a little remarkable on account of the studied architectural decoration bestowed on them externally; for besides subterraneous sepulchral chambers or vaults (which were usually very carefully finished internally, and not unfrequently ornamented with painting and stucco-work, and with marble or mosaic pavements), there is another and quite distinct class, consisting of structures raised above-ground, insulated, and apparently solid. These may be described as generally of nearly cubical form, though some are of much loftier proportions. There are besides varieties of this class, in which either a conical or cylindrical superstructure is raised upon the square portion, which then becomes a basement; or else the superstruc

The Princess of Canino is said to have appeared some few years ago at a ball attired with costly ornaments that had been found in some of the ancient tombs of Etruria.

What is called the Sepolcro di Nerone,' near Ponte Molle, may be taken as a specimen of the usual character of Roman tombs partaking of the cubic form. Like the generality of them, this is somewhat more than a perfect cube, the dimensions being 20 feet by 24 in height, or, including its covering, 27 feet. At each angle is a large acroterium presenting two quadrant-shaped surfaces, meeting at right angles at the external edge of two adjoining sides; a species of ornament almost peculiar to antient altars and tombs. Of larger tombs of this class there is one in the Via Portuensis, a double cube in height, the measurements being respectively 44 and 80 feet. In the example previously mentioned, the upper part is rather less in height than the basement, but here it is about a third more, and is also decorated with four pilasters on each front, with a small pediment, not supporting, but placed between the large acroteria at the angles. Of circular tombs we have a well-known example in that of Manutius Plancus at Gaeta; a low circular tower (nearly solid within), about 60 feet in diameter, and 10 feet more in height; therefore, owing to its size, it is rather a mausoleum than a mere tomb. The same may be said of that of Cæcilia Metella at Rome; which structure, otherwise called Il Capo di Bove, from the ornaments in its Doric frieze, exceeds the one just mentioned in size, it being 90 feet in diameter, and its entire height about 130 feet. It does not however partake so much of the character of a mere tower as the tomb at Gaeta, because it consists of two nearly equal masses, viz. a square one with a cylindrical superstructure, and is therefore an example of that compound-form class which we have above pointed out. Among the tombs at Pompeii there is one which is circular in the upper part of its exterior, and internally has a dome of very peculiar shape, which does not show itself on the outside, but is cut out of the solid mass. Other sepulchral structures at Pompeii are very numerous, forming what is called the Street of Tombs. Instead of cemeteries, or public burying-grounds, it was the custom in antient Italy to erect tombs on each side of the principal roads leading from a city, as was the case with the Via Appia and others in the immediate vicinity of Rome.

The tombs of the middle ages are within buildings, churches, chantries, cloisters, &c., and exhibit almost every variety of form and enrichment, from the primitive stone coffin or Christian sarcophagus, to those lavishly decorated catafalco monuments which are so many piles of architecture and sculpture. Those of the first-mentioned kind are, for the most part, very little raised above the floor, and their upper surface is en dos d'ane, or forms a ridgeshaped lid. The next class consists of Altar or Table Tombs, comparatively plain, although with panelling or other architectural decoration on their sides. The next in order is the Effigy Tomb, first introduced in the thirteenth century, with a recumbent figure of the deceased upon it, extended, with the hands slightly raised, and joined as if in the attitude of prayer. Examples of this kind are very numerous, and highly interesting, both on account of their execution as works of sculpture, and the information they afford in regard to the costume of the period. In some cases there is a small canopy over the head of the figure, placed, similarly to that effigy, in a horizontal direction. This will be best understood from the annexed representation of the monument of Eleanor Bohun, wife of Thomas of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester.

This is not indeed exactly a specimen of the class just referred to, it being a monumental inlaid brass (a species of monument very common in this country during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries); but although not executed in relief, it will serve to explain the usual character of sculptured recumbent effigies, and the design of the ornamental parts.

Altar and effigy tombs were usually placed between the piers of an arch, or within a recess in a wall, and in either case the whole tomb was frequently covered by an arch forming a sort of canopy over it; of which kind is that of Aymer de Valence in Westminster Abbey (1334). In course of time this mode of architectural decoration came