PART II-COMPOSITION

CHAPTER V

A SPEAKER'S USE OF THE FOUR FORMS OF DISCOURSE

Introduction. Part I of this text has dealt with the subject of delivery. The student has been given practice in the delivery of the thoughts of others in order that, having partially overcome timidity, awkwardness, and vocal defects, he might be better able to deliver speeches of his own composition.

Part II deals with the art of composition. It aims to give the student an insight into the purposes of the speaker and into the methods by which these purposes can be attained most effectively.

In the present chapter we shall learn: (1) that, in the majority of cases, a speaker has persuasion as his object; (2) that, in the accomplishment of his purpose, he is likely to use all of the four forms of discourse; and (3) that he weaves them into a very definite plan. The points discussed are illustrated by reference to the speech of Dickens, the text of which is given in Reading Lesson III.

I. THE MAIN OBJECT OF SPEECH

In the majority of cases, a speaker has persuasion as his object; that is, he wishes to lead others to believe, to feel, and to act as he thinks they ought to believe, feel, and act. The Honorable James Bryce, for several years ambassador from England to the United States, and himself an able speaker, says in his Hints on Public Speaking

that "the two ends (or purposes) of speaking are to persuade and to delight."

When we con

To Delight is Rarely the Sole Purpose. sider the different sorts of occasions upon which speeches are delivered, we find that very few are made for the sole purpose of giving pleasure. For instance, a story may be told to a group gathered about a campfire; or one who has traveled may relate his experiences in the form of a lecture, or travel-talk. These are the most important of the longer speeches which aim merely at entertainment.

There are also certain shorter speeches which are made on social occasions: for example, a speech should accompany the presentation of a gift to a favorite teacher or leader; a distinguished visitor or a convention of delegates must be received by a few words of welcome; or toasts are called for at the close of a banquet.

Persuasiveness in Great Demand. — Although occasions such as those mentioned in the preceding paragraph are decidedly important, they are few in the life of the average man. On the other hand, situations which demand persuasiveness are almost innumerable. Such occasions are constantly arising in the business world. The salesman, from the ordinary peddler up to the manager of a corporation, makes it his daily business to induce some one to transfer money from his pocket to the salesman's.

One cannot belong to an organization of any kind without realizing the value of persuasive speaking. It may be the merchant in the chamber of commerce, the farmer in his grange, or the citizen in his mass meeting, lodge, or club. Each is trying to arouse others to belief and action. Even the high-school student finds use for his persuasive ability when he rallies his fellow students to the football game,

when he solicits their subscriptions to the school paper, or when he urges their support for his favorite candidate.

The same is true of the man in public life. The lawyer seeks to move a jury; the clergyman tries to convince men of the value of righteousness; the politician talks to gain votes for his policy or party.

In view of all these facts, it would seem that Plato was right when he defined the art of public speech as "the art of ruling the minds of men."

Union of Both Aims. The fact that persuasion is so frequently the chief aim of speech should not, however, lead us to ignore the great value of making our speeches delightful. In fact, we are much more likely to succeed in persuading if we can, at the same time, give pleasure. Doubtless if we had been present at the London dinner and heard Dickens' speech, we should have been very willing to contribute to his hospital fund and we should also have been very willing to admit that his speech had given us pleasure.

II. USE OF THE FOUR FORMS OF DISCOURSE

When we study the method by which Dickens obtained his result, we find that he used all of the four forms of discourse. All discourse, or composition, has been separated into four divisions according to the purpose for which each is used.

Description and Narration. These two forms of discourse are used for the purpose of appealing to the feelings. Description arouses feeling because it makes the hearer or reader see a picture. If the picture is beautiful, it awakens admiration; if ugly, it creates repulsion; if pathetic, it causes a feeling of sadness. Narration, or

story-telling, goes farther than description and paints the picture of a series of events. These events are so arranged as to excite the reader's interest and put him in sympathy with the characters involved in the story.

Dickens painted vivid pictures of the little children who needed help. In this way, he made his hearers feel like subscribing to his hospital fund. The third paragraph of his speech may be considered either as a description or as a story. If we look at it from one point of view, he seems to be describing a poor hovel in Edinburgh, with its cold hearth and hungry, ragged occupants. The central figure in this picture is the little sick baby in the old egg-box. From another point of view, he is telling the story of his own visit to this wretched dwelling: how he came to go; how the mother secured the cradle; and what the baby seemed to say. It is of little importance for us to decide whether it is a description or a narration. Viewed in either light, it awakens our sympathy and so helps Dickens to accomplish his purpose.

Exposition and Argument. These two forms of discourse are used to appeal to the understanding. Exposition aims to explain something, or to make it clear to the mind. Argument seeks to convince the hearer or reader that a certain fact is true or that a certain course of action is right.

Dickens used these two forms of discourse when he tried to show that the best way to help these poor little ones was to assist in maintaining the hospital. In the latter part of paragraph 4, he stated: (1) that there were ten thousand out-patients brought to the hospital every year; (2) that the physicians testified that it was much better for children to be placed in a separate hospital; and (3) that there were but thirty beds in which to accom

modate the sick children of the vast city of London. This portion of his speech may be regarded as either an exposition or an argument. To one who was already interested in the Children's Hospital, he would seem to be merely explaining its needs. To those who were indifferent or opposed to the project, his facts would have the nature of proof. Whichever view we take of it, we see that this portion of his discourse appeals to the understanding rather than to the feelings.

Necessity for All Forms. - Any persuasive speech which is really effective is likely to contain all four of these forms. The explanations and arguments usually form the solid framework upon which the speaker builds, while short descriptions and stories furnish the ornamentation. If the two former predominate, the speech is apt to be heavy and lacking in color and interest; if the two latter predominate, the speech may lack form and substance. Dickens seems to have provided a very judicious mixture. If he had given his listeners only the pictures and the stories, they would have been interested in the children, it is true, but they might still have objected to his method of helping them. On the other hand, he never could have won his audience to his cause by appealing to their understanding alone; it was only by the pathetic story of the little Edinburgh boy and by the wonderful picture of the little tots asleep in their hospital beds, too tired and sick to play with their toys, that he extracted from the people their treasured coins.

III. A DEFINITE PLAN

Although the persuasive speaker uses the four forms of discourse, he does not throw them together without a