8. Explain and discuss the following statements concerning Shakespeare. Whenever you can, illustrate with examples from the plays. (1) He was not of an age, but for all time.-JONSON. KEATS. (4) His plays are distinguished by signal adherence to the great laws of nature, that all opposites tend to attract and temper each other.-COLERIDGE. (5) The striking peculiarity of Shakespeare's mind was its power of communicating with other minds, so that it contained a universe of thought and feeling within itself.-HAZLITT. 9. What were the signs of the "dramatic decline" that set in after Shakespeare? Mention some dramatists whose plays show this decline. 10. Try to account for the weakness of English prose when compared with the poetry of the time. 1) No single prose writer of the time, not even Hooker, holds the same rank that Spenser holds in poetry.—SAINTSBURY. (2) The poets and dramatists of the age of Elizabeth completed their work quickly, and attained, by leaps and bounds, to the consummate perfection of their diction. But prose style grows more slowly; and its growth is hindered rather than quickened by the very variety of its subject.-CRAIK. 11. In what respects is the title "Elizabethan literature" open to objection when it is applied to the matter of this chapter? Suggest other titles. 12. To what extent were the University Wits immature dramatists? What was their contribution to the English drama? 13."The age of Elizabeth made the most of both native and classical elements." Discuss this statement. 14. It is frequently stated that during the second half of the Elizabethan period drama weakened and prose strengthened. Confirm or confute the statement. 15. How was this time "the Golden Age of the lyric"? CHAPTER VI THE AGE OF MILTON TIME-CHART OF THE CHIEF AUTHORS The thick line indicates approximately the period of active literary production. THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND (1630-60) The entire period covered by this chapter is dominated by the Civil War. The earlier years are marked by the quarrels and alarms which led up to actual hostilities in 1642; the middle of the period is occupied with the spasmodic fighting that lasted till the execution of Charles I in 1649; and the last portion covers the establishment of the Commonwealth, the rise and disappearance of Cromwell (1654-58), the confusion following upon his death, and the final restoration of the monarchy in 1660. LITERARY FEATURES OF THE AGE 1. The Reaction. During this period the decline from the high Elizabethan standard is apparent in several ways. (a) The output, especially of poetry, is much smaller, and the fashion is toward shorter poems, especially the lyric of a peculiar type. (b) There is a marked decay in the exalted poetical fervor of the previous age. In the new poetry there is more of the intellectual play of fancy than of passion and profundity. And, especially in prose, there is a matured melancholy that one is apt to associate with advancing years. (c) In prose there is a marked increase in activity, which is an almost invariable accompaniment of a decline in poetry. Viewed from a 2. The Pressure of Historical Events. broad aspect, the Civil War was only a domestic incident in English history; but the very narrowness of the issue intensified the bitterness of the contest. It divided the people into two factions, and among other things vitally affected the literature of the time. Poetry was benumbed and lifeless, and prose assumed a fierce and' disputatious character. 3. The Dominance of Milton. The age is distinguished by the efforts of Milton to keep literature alive. Upon his "Atlantean shoulders" he bears its reputation. Other poets were scrappy and uneven, like the "Metaphysicals"; or flat and uninspired, like Cowley; or shallow and trivial, like Denham. In Milton alone, and even in the prose of Milton to a considerable extent, we find satisfying quantity and quality. 4. The Metaphysical Poets. This term was first used by Johnson, who applied it to Donne and Cowley. It was applied to a kind of poetry, usually lyrical poetry, that often startled the reader by the sudden leaps of its fancy into remoteness and (in exaggerated instances) absurdity. The fashion was popular just before the Civil War broke out, and it can be seen in the works of Herrick, Crashaw, Herbert, Vaughan, and others. More detailed examination of this curious poetical mode will be found in the notices of these poets. 5. The Cavalier Poets. This name is often loosely applied to the Metaphysical poets; but the latter were usually of a religious and mystical cast, whereas the Cavalier poets were military and swashbuckling in disposition. They were well represented by Lovelace and Suckling. 6. The Expansion of Prose. The development of prose is carried on from the previous age. In spite of the hampering effects of the civil strife, the prose output was copious and excellent in kind. There was a notable advance in the sermon; pamphlets were abundant; and history, politics, philosophy, and miscellaneous kinds were well represented. In addition, there was a remarkable advance in prose style. 7. The Collapse of the Drama. Many things combined to oppress the drama at this time. Chief among these were the civil disturbances and the strong opposition of the Puritans. In temper the age was not dramatic. It is curious to note that Milton's greatest work, which in the Elizabethan age would probably have been dramatic in form, took on the shape of the epic. The actual dramatic work of the period was small and unimportant; and the unequal struggle was terminated by the closing of the theaters in 1642. JOHN MILTON (1608-74) 1. His Life. Milton was born in Bread Street, Cheapside, London. His father was a money-scrivener, an occupation that combined the duties of the modern banker and lawyer. Milton was educated at St. Paul's School, London, and at Cambridge. At the university his stubborn and irascible nature declared itself, and owing to insubordination he was "sent down" for a term. On taking his final degree (1632) he abandoned his intention of en tering the Church and retired to Horton, a small village in Buckinghamshire, some seventeen miles from London, whither his father had withdrawn from business. Milton's next few years were those of a sequestered man of letters. Poetry, mathematics, and music were his main studies. In 1638 he left for a tour on the Continent, staying some months in Italy, where he met many scholars and literary men. He was recalled to England by the news that civil war was imminent. He settled down in London and set up a small private school, and when hostilities broke out a year or two later he took no part in the fighting. His pen, however, was active in support of the Parliamentary cause, to which he was passionately attached. In 1643 he married a woman much younger than himself, and almost immediately his wife left him, and did not return for two years. This unfortunate circumstance led Milton to write two strong pamphlets on divorce, which caused a great scandal at the time. Then in 1649, after the execution of the King, he was appointed by the Commonwealth Government Secretary for Foreign Tongues. In this capacity he became secretary to the Council of State, and drafted Latin documents for transmission to foreign Powers. In addition, he wrote numerous pamphlets in support of the republican cause. By this time his eyesight was failing; and when the Restoration came in 1660 to ruin his hopes, it found him blind, poor, and alone. He escaped, however, from the severe punishments that were inflicted upon many prominent Roundheads. He was slightly punished by a nominal imprisonment; retired to an obscure village in Buckinghamshire to write poetry; and died in London, where he was buried. 2. His Prose. Most of Milton's prose was written during the middle period of his life (1640-60), when he was busy with public affairs. The prose works have an unusual interest, because as a rule they have a direct bearing on either his personal business or public interests. In all they amount to twenty-five pamphlets, of which twenty-one are in English and the remaining four in Latin. |