The pretty general repeal all over Europe of the old usury laws has been followed since 1878 by a reaction, and a great number of “ usury laws have been passed in Germany, Austria, Hungary, Switzerland, and other countries; as well as for the possessions of the Great Powers outside Europe, as e.g. for the Punjaub, the Soudan, Algiers, &c. For an account and estimate of this movement, see Schmoller, Grundriss, § 189 (Principes, vol. iii.). As to the English "Money-lenders Act " of 1900, see the observations from a point of view identical with that of Mill in Dicey, Law and Public Opinion in England (1905), pp. 33 and 45.
KK.-THE FACTORY ACTS (p. 759)
See, on the whole subject, Hutchins and Harrison, A History of Factory Legislation (1907). The legislature, after restricting the freedom of contract of adult men in various other ways, began very tentatively in 1893 to regulate their hours of labour by the Act of that year giving power to the Board of Trade to order railway companies to submit revised schedules of hours of duty for their servants: hereon see Bulletin of the U.S. Department of Labour, No. 20 (1899). Since then, by the Miners' Eight Hours Act (1908), it has introduced a normal day" for a large number of adult men.
LL. THE POOR LAW (p. 969)
The Report of the Royal Commission on the Poor Law (1909) contains copious and systematically arranged treatises, in the Majority and Minority Reports, and in the supplementary volumes of Reports of special inquiries, on all aspects of the history and practice of the Poor Law since 1834; and will doubtless lead to considerable legislative changes.
MM. THE PROVINCE OF GOVERNMENT (p. 979)
On this subject, in its general philosophical aspects, the most influential English writings since the time of Mill have perhaps been those of Sidgwick, Principles of Political Economy (1883), bk. iii. chs. 3 and 4; and Elements of Politics (1891); and Green, Lectures on the Principles of Political Obligation in Works (1886), vol. ii. See also Ritchie, Natural Rights (1895), and, with regard to certain arguments drawn from modern biology, his Darwinism and Politics (1889).
ABSTINENCE, remuneration for, 32, 36, 729
Agriculture, natural advantages, 102; much division of labour impos- sible in, 131; grande and petite cul- ture, 144-5; improvements in, 183; British, ib.; produce, 572-3 Allotment system, 368
America, Indians in North A., 104; work in, 105 n.; Indian villages, 167-9; farming in, 180; emigra- tion, 197; slavery (q.v.), 251; tenure in North A., 258; popula- tion, 350, 353; cotton trade, 414; profits, 420; silver mines, 485, 507; Spanish A., 655; cotton failure, 665; wages, 681; cotton, 682; rates of profits, 731; wealth and population, 761, 892 Arctic whale fisheries, 27 Argovie, population, 291; laws of marriage, 355
Arkwright, invention of, 96; its effect, 193, 350
Asia, economical condition, 14; cause of poverty in, 113; population in, 159; high rate of interest in, 175; limits of production in, 189 Attwood, on currency, 550 Australia, wool-growers, 43; Western A., 65; agriculture in, 194; coloni- sation, 197; growth of population in, 350; gold mines, 485; annual gold produce, 673; wealth and population, 761; colonisation, 973 Austria, serf labour, 252; currency reform, 667
BABBAGE, Mr., Economy of Machinery and Manufacture, 107; instances of
frauds, 112; value of trust in busi- ness, ib.; on division of labour, 123, 125-6, 129; on production on a large scale, 132; on co-operation, 765, 772 n.
Bank Charter Act, 651 Bank notes, 519, 529 Barham, Dr., 765
Bastiat, metayers, 305 n. ; on property in land, 430
Bavaria, farms, 298; laws of mar- riage, 354
Béarn, small farms in, 279
Bedford Level, the, 92, 182, 230, 430 Bedfordshire, lace-making, 311; agri- cultural labourers, 357
Belgium, cattle in, 147 n.; peasant proprietors, 239, 271; manufac- turing distress (in 1849), 275 n.; population, 296; Poor Colonies of, 424; peasant-class, 482 Bengal, land tenure, 327
Bentham, 223, 397, 806, 861, 885, 927 Bequest, 226
Berlin Decrees, the, 112 Berne, farms, 262 n., 269 Berwickshire, farmers in, 265 Birmingham, currency school, 550 Blacker, William, 146 n. Blackstone, on entails, 895 Blanc, Louis, 203, 773, 780 n. Bombay, land tenure, 327
Brazil, slavery in, 255; bullion, 608 Briggs, Messrs., co-operation, 771 Browne, Mr.,consul at Copenhagen, 292 Buckinghamshire, lace-making, 311; agricultural labourers, 357
Campagna of Rome, agricultural ten- ure, 240, 258; small farms in, 276 n. Campbell, Lord, 886
Campine, the sands in, 271 Canada, emigration to, 197; timber trade, 415
Capital, defined, 54; distinction be- tween C. and not-C., 56; wages a part of C., 57; further examples of use of, 59; fundamental proposi- tions respecting C., 63; distinction between industry and C., 64; C. may perish for want of labour, 65; error that unproductive expenditure of C. will employ the poor, 66; C. and luxuries, 67-8; source of, 68; how consumed, 70; perpetual consumption and reproduction of C., 74; C. of producer pays labour, 79; circulating C. defined, 91; fixed C. defined, 92; distinction between circulating C. and fixed C., 93, 99 ; a primary requisite of production (q.v.), 101; law of increase of, 163; net-produce of, 164; great accumu- lation in England, 173; transfer among employments, 412; C. and profits, 452, 639; waste of, 731; sinking of, 742
Carey, H. C., population, 157 n., 158 n.; on law of agricultural in- dustry, 181-2; on rent, 430–2; on partnership, 902 n.; on chartered companies, 907; on protection, 922-5
Chalmers, Dr., 67 n., 75, 77; on land, 424, 557, 562, 690, 727, 840 Chancery, Court of, 885, 906 Channel Islands, peasant properties in, 276-7
Communism, 202 n., 203; examined, 204-11 Competition, 242; in prices, 245; of different countries in the same market, 678-87; underselling, 679-84; advantage of, 793 Co-operation, increases productive- ness of labour, 116; in agriculture (q.v.), 144; growth of, 698; forms of, 764-94; English, 783-8 Coquelin, 902, 904-5
Corn, laws, 186, 338; taxes, 840–7; laws (again), 920 Cornish miners, 765
Cost of production, 451-68, 566, 569 Cottiers, 318-28; means of abolishing cottier tenancy, 329-42 Cotton famine, 757 Credit, effect on profits, 413; as a substitute for money (q.v.), 511- 22; defined, 511; credit and commerce, 514; bills of exchange, 515; cheques, 520; influence on prices, 523-41; commercial prices, 527; bank notes, 531-52; Bank of England notes, 539; an inconver- tible paper currency, 542-55 ; Bank of England (1819), 552 Crimean War, effect on currency, 665 Crises, 641, 644, 651, 709, 734, 845 Cuba, slavery in, 249, 255, 686 Cumberland, 257 Currency, influence of, on exchanges and foreign trade, 629-38; de- preciated, 646; on the regulation of a convertible C., 656-7 n.; paper C., 651-77; Bank Charter Act (1844), 657-8; drains on Bank re- serve, 672 n. ; bank-note C., 674 Custom, 242; defined, 243; in prices, 247
De Quincey, on value, 436–7, 442, 446, 449, 454
Devon Commission on Ireland, 323, 337 n.
Diminishing Returns, law of, 177, 179,
181, 183, 185, 188, 190, 427, 469 Distributing class, defined, 39, 789 Distribution, laws of, 21, 200; dis- tribution as affected by exchange, 688-94; influence of the progress of society on production and distribu- tion, 695
Domestic manufactures, 683 Dorsetshire, agricultural labourers, 357 Doubleday, on population, 157 n., 158 n.
Dunning, T. J., 939 n.
Dunoyer, on extractive industry, 33, 950-2, 954 n.
ELLIOTT, J. H., 911 n.
Ellis, William, on machinery, 728 Emigration, cause of, 193; in form
of colonisation, 197, 701 Engadine, peasant proprietors, 261 Engineers, Society of, 936, 938 England, agriculture, 31; reproduc- tion of wealth (q.v.), 74; compared with other nations, 101; workmen in, 105 n.; law and police, 111; security, 115; increase of produc- tion on a large scale, 142; small farms, 145; cattle, 147 m.; popu- lation, 160-1; accumulation of capital (q.v.), 173; land cultiva- tion, 175, 182-5; Poor Laws (q.v.), 187; population progress, 192; wages (q.v.), 220; bequest, 228–9 n. ; landed property, 232; yeomen, 256; farmers, 265; peasants, 267; agri- culture, compared with the Channel Islands (q.v.), 277; rate of popu- lation, 294; tenant farmers, 306; wages and food, 347-8; agricul- tural population, 356; retail profits, 415-20; land in, 426-31; gold standard, 509; high prices, 610; currency, 633; banking, 677; agri- culture, 704; interest, 730–5; over- flow of capital abroad, 738; rail- ways, 743-5; co-operation, 783–8; land-tax, 819; tithes, 845; law of inheritance, 890
Escher, Mr., of Zurich, 109 Europe, 2; ancient agriculture in, 14; source of wealth of modern E., 17; temperate regions, 102; security, 113; market for Indian goods, 122; population, 153, 159, 161; effective desire of accumu- lation, 170; cultivation, 179; property, 208; laws, 227; usage of tenure, 245; custom of prices, 247; farms, 270; hoarding, 554; profit and savings, 731; taxation of land, 819
Exchange, the operation of, 88; bills of, 515, 529, 613
Exports and Imports, 578, 611, 619; disturbances of, 618, 624; undis- turbed, 625; taxes on, 850-6
FANE, Cecil, 898 n., 905 n., 914 n. Fawcett, Prof., 937
Feugueray, 774, 780 n., 781-2, 793 Flanders, 18; security, 114; small farms and peasant-farming, 147-8 ; high farming, 179; crops, 265, 271– 5, 280; peasant proprietors, 284; population, 291; free cities, 882 Flemish Husbandry, treatise on, 147 n. Florence, metayers near, 309-11 Food, importation of, 193; exports of, 195
Foreign exchanges, 612-18 Fourierism, 204, 212; examined, 213- 16
France, agriculture, 31; railways,
144; cattle, 148 n.; labour, com- pared with England, 150-2; popu- lation, 153, 161; cultivation, 182; Socialism, 204, 211; bequest, 227, 229 n.; trades, 236; peasant pro- prietors, 239; agricultural tenure, 240, 260 n., 278; metayers, 306–7; food, 481; silver standard, 509 n. ; credit, 522; assignats, 547; trade, 575; bank notes, 666; agriculture, 704; co-operation, 783; taxes, 820; law of inheritance, 890; partner- ship laws, 900; manufactures, 900-2
Frankfort, laws of marriage, 354 French Economistes, on rent, 26 Fullarton, on currency, 498, 500 n., 537; bank circulation, 652–5, 668– 70, 675
GERMANY, medieval free towns, 18; wood-cutters, 34; peasant proprie- tors, 239; northern provinces, 252; cultivation of land, 260 n., 264 n., 267; population, 291; peasant class, 482; trade with, 575; inter- national values with, 584-606; co-operation, 783
Gisquet, co-operation, 77 n. Gladstone, income-tax, 806 n.; taxa- tion, 871
Godley, J. R., 179 n.
Gold and silver, as
money (q.v.), 484; as commodities, 502, 607–11; their distribution in commerce, 619- 28; their cost of production varies, 629 Government, its functions, 795–801; revenues from taxation (q.v.), 802; on the ordinary functions of, con- sidered as to their economical effects, 881-8; further effects, 889-915; interference of, 916-40; protection, 917-26; monopolies, 932; combin- ations of workmen, 933-9; limits 941-79; laissez-faire,
Graduated taxation, 806, 808 Gray, John, on money, 549 Great Britain, coal-fields, 103; farm- ing, 180; emigration, 197; landed proprietors, 231; workmen, 239 n.; emigration for colonisation (q.v.), 384; land value, 431; credit, 521; agriculture, 704; population, 704; tithes, 845
Greece, soldiers' gains, 50; sculptures of, 74; its colonies, 114 Greeks, ancient, 48, 104 Guernsey, peasant farms, 276
HAINAULT, crops in, 271 Hanse towns, 686, 882 Hardenberg, land reforms, 334 Hargreaves, invention of, 96 Harlem, Lake of, 182
Head, Sir George, on Guernsey, 276 Holland, cattle in, 147 n.; low rate of interest, 173, 175; fens of, 185; crops in, 265; peasant farms, 271; trade, 687; profits, 884 Holyoake, 784-8
Howitt, W., 266
Hubbard, on income-tax, 815 n. Huber, Prof., 780 n.
Hume, on money, 496, 550-1 Hungary, 20 n., 252 N., 738
INCOME-TAX, 806–17; graduated, 808- 10; on annuities, 811; savings, 813-17; defined, 829-32 Inconvertible currency, 542–55, 634 Increasing returns, 703
India, 13, 121; small towns, 122; native states, 173; tenure, 240; ryots, 243; customs in tenure, 244; land tenure, 324-8; high interest on loans, 409
Industry, extractive, defined, 33; limited by capital (q.v.), 63; dis- tinction between I. and capital, 64; influence of the progress of I. and population on values and prices, 700-9; influence of the progress of I. and population on rents, profits, and wages, 710-24 Inglis, 260 Inheritance, 221 Inquisition, the, 940
Interest, defined, 406; market rate of, 411; on the rate of, 639–50; and loans, 639; fluctuations, 641; loans, 643; rate depends on capital loaned, 647; value and price of funds determined by, 649; low interest, 732-3
International trade, 574-606 Ireland, 102; farms small, 145-9, 180; tenancy, 187; emigration, 197; landed property, 232; tenure, 318; cottiers, ib. ; peasantry, 322– 34; proposed reforms in cottier tenancy, 331-7; low wages, 419; low profits, 420; emigration for colonisation, 975
Irish peasantry, 56; landowners, 234 ; cottier tenants, 258
Italy, ancient, 16; towns in medi- eval I., 18; security in, 114; peasant farming in, 148, 239; agri- cultural tenure, 240, 258, 260 n.; crops in, 280; peasant farming, 284; metayers, 303, 307, 308, 311, 316; peasant-class, 482; free cities of, 882
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