the virgins of Spain in the thirteenth canon of the Council of Elvira.116 The Council is legislating in regard to those virgins who had broken their vows, either by marrying, or by falling into sins of impurity. If they continue in their sins, they are never to be admitted to communion, even at the hour of death; if they do penance, and do not relapse, they are to be reconciled on their deathbed. Such legislation proves conclusively that asceticism had reached the same development in Spain as in North Africa. That is not at all surprising, when we remember the close communion between the Church in Spain and the Church in Carthage. Many non-Catholic scholars like Keim,117 Zöckler,118 and Harnack119 assert that Neo-Platonism played a considerable part in the origin of monasticism. This theory of course is merely a part of their general thesis concerning the "catholicizing," i. e., the Hellenization or paganizing of Christianity. They hold, with many rationalistic thinkers, that under the influence of Greek philosophy the spiritual liberty of the first two centuries gave way to the authoritative and bureaucratic spirit of Catholicism. Monsignor Batiffol has refuted this theory at length in his work on Primitive Catholicism. We are concerned with this theory only in so far as it affects asceticism. The Abbé Martinez shows clearly that though great teachers like Clement of Alexandria and Origen made use of the Greek philosophy of their day the better to reach their age, it by no means affected their ascetic teaching.120 Clement of Alexandria declares, with St. Paul, that virginity is superior to marriage; that it is a grace of God to be gratefully received; that it should be practised especially by those who wish to work efficaciously for their brethren.121 He lays more stress though upon the dignity and sanctity of the married state, because the great evil of his time was the low birth rate due to the current pagan immorality. He seems, indeed, to prefer the Christian who marries, has children, and then lives the virgin life with his wife. 122 He declares that riches are in themselves neither good nor evil; they are merely an instrument; all depends on how they are used.1 123 Extreme poverty is not a good thing, for it often prevents a man 116Leclercq, L'Espagne Chrétienne, i., pp. 2, 5. 117 Aus der Urchristentum, p. 215. VOL. XCVIII.-50 118 Ascese und Mönchtum, p. 144. 120 Pages 104-169. 121 Strom., iii., iv., xii. 123 Quis Dives Salvetur, xiv. from considering the higher things of the spirit in his constant struggle to make a living. One may be without riches, and yet be guilty of sin, because he is most desirous of them in his heart. True poverty, therefore, is poverty of spirit; this alone frees a man from all affection for the things of this world.124 The truly great soul always despises riches.125 He recommends mortification as a means of strengthening the soul patiently to endure suffering, and to keep the Christian ever in the path of righteousness. An austere life will safeguard one from temptations, and prevent grievous falls.126 He also insists on the mortification of the senses and abstinence from meat and wine, that the body might be kept pure from every stain. He urges the ascetic to pray continually, both in Church, at the canonical hours, and alone in his room by meditating upon the eternal truths. The true gnostic is rarely to ask God for temporal favors; his heart must be bent entirely on celestial things. There is no mention in Clement's writings of any public vow of virginity, and probably no reference even to private vows. Origen continued and perfected the teaching of Clement of Alexandria on asceticism. History tells us very little of the life of Clement, but a great deal about his disciple. Origen was, indeed, a perfect type of the Christian ascetic. At eighteen years of age he was already head of the great Christian school of Alexandria. Realizing the danger of falling away from true fervor because of the motley body of men and women who crowded to his lectures, he determined to lead a most austere life. He went to the extreme of making himself a eunuch for the kingdom of heaven.127 He also lived in the most absolute poverty. He sold his valuable library in exchange for four obols a day, which he considered enough for his immediate wants. He always walked barefooted, and wore but one garment. He abstained from wine, fasted frequently, slept but little, and on the bare ground, and exposed his body relentlessly to cold. In fact every moment which he did not spend in study or teaching, he devoted to the practices of austerity. Sickness at last forced him to discontinue these ascetic practices. His teaching therefore is simply a commentary upon his own manner of life. He recognized the lawfulness of marriage, and insisted on the freedom of virginity. He was rather rigoristic in his views on these matters, for we find him comparing the 124 Quis Dives Salvetur, xii. 125 Pad., ii., 3. Eusebius, Hist. Eccles., vi., 3. slavery of the marriage bond with the liberty of the virgin life. He was even ready to pardon the error of those widows who did not marry the second time for fear of hell. Those who married a second time might be saved, but they would not be crowned by Christ, 128 He speaks of virgins as "flowers that ornament the Church of Christ," and ranks them immediately after the martyrs. Virginity is superior to marriage, because it allows one to worship God without ceasing.129 He warns the ascetics against vanity, telling them that chastity is valueless unless accompanied by the other virtues. In a word purity of body is of no avail without purity of soul.180 Jesus Christ is the model of every ascetic, who must live not for himself, but for Christ Whose footsteps he must follow, and Whose cross he must bear. This distinguishes him at once from the philosophers of paganism. By their chastity the ascetics become like little children, and merit the kingdom of God. Origen, therefore, preaches asceticism not in the name of his philosophical principles, but in the name of the Gospel, which is for him, as for all the early Church writers, the unique source of the perfect life.131 It is pretty certain that Origen speaks of the vow of virginity more than once in his writings. The clearest text of all is the following, quoted by Schiwietz in his Asceticism in the First Three Centuries, p. 17: "Et nos ergo, cum venimus ad Deum et vovemus ei nos in castitate servire, pronuntiamus labiis nostris et juramus nos castigare carnem nostram vel male ei facere atque in servitutem eam redigere, ut spiritum salvum facere possimus." The ascetics of his time did not practise absolute poverty. Monasteries were not yet in existence, so that every Christian had to provide for his own necessities. Origen insists on the true ascetic renouncing all superfluities, quoting the words of Christ.182 He extols on page after page the virtue of poverty, calling it a true holocaust upon the altar of the Lord." The goods of eternal life will compensate for the loss of present possessions.133 66 Origen's whole life proves the important place of mortification in asceticism, although he alludes to it directly in but few passages. Mortification is really an imitation of the Passion of Christ, and 128 Cont. Cels., xx., 192; in Epis. ad Rom., vi., 12; vii., 295, 395; Hom. xix. in Jer., xv., 366. 129 Hom. iii. in Gen.; Hom. ii. in Numb; Hom. xxiii. in Numb. 130 In Epis. ad Rom.; Bornemann, in Invest. mon. Origine, p. 28. 1In Epis. ad Rom.; Hom. xxiv. in Numb.; Hom. vi. in Ezech.; Cont. Cels., xx., 77; in Matt. iii., 238. 132 Luke xiv. 33. 133 Hom. ix. in Lev.; in Psal., xii., 171. a means of purification for the soul which consecrates itself entirely to God. It is a preservative of chastity, and helps the Christian especially in the study of the Holy Scriptures. He recommends abstinence, meditation, prayer, vigils, and fasting as various means of mastering the lower nature. 184 Contemplation in his eyes is the height of perfection. It separates the ascetic from everything earthly and material, and makes him think only of God. The true ascetic must live in the world, but just as much apart from it as if he were living in the desert. Outside of the demands of apostolic zeal, he should not engage in worldly affairs. He should imitate the Savior, Who loved to retire frequently apart from His disciples. In his commentary on St. Matthew,135 Origen expresses his desire that the ascetics live the common life, but there is no proof that this desire of his was realized in his lifetime. We know from Eusebius that a few years later, after the persecution of Diocletian, Peter, Bishop of Alexandria, passed the remainder of his life in ascetic practices in common with others. 186 Paul of Thebes, Anthony, and Hilarion were contemporaries or even predecessors of Bishop Peter of Alexandria. The Epistola ad Virgines is the first document in ecclesiastical literature that treats ex professo of the ascetic life. It was written originally in Greek in the first decade of the third century.137 The critics assign it to a Christian of Egypt, and say that it was addressed to the ascetics of Syria or Palestine. The writer praises virginity as "the blessed seed of God, the royal priesthood, the holy nation, and the people of God." The ascetic must have in view his own sanctification, and follow Jesus Christ as his model. He must practise an apostolate both of prayer and of action. He must not only preach the Gospel from city to city, but visit the orphans and widows, exorcize the possessed, and care for the sick. He still lives like other Christians in the cities and villages, but he is always known as an ascetic; in his journeyings he must stay with the ascetics of the town. The Subintroducta are mentioned more than once, and clearly mark the tendency towards community life. Poverty and mortifications of various sorts are strongly recommended. Certain abuses are mentioned, such as the sins of vanity, idleness, avarice, and immorality. In Matt. iii., 171; De Prin., xxi., 327; in Matt. iii., 238; Hom. xiii. in Ex. 194III., 361. 130 Hist. Eccles., VII., xxxii., 31. 137Harnack, Sitzungsberichte, vol. i. Our last witness is Bishop Methodius of Olympia in Lycia. His Convivium gives us a picture of asceticism in Asia Minor, which is strikingly like conditions in Carthage a few years before. The development of asceticism in Asia Minor and Africa is not quite so advanced as in Egypt and the Orient. The Abbé Martinez concludes this detailed account of the asceticism of the first three centuries by showing how naturally monasticism arose from asceticism. It is true that both institutions coexisted for many years, but gradually asceticism disappeared, being absorbed by monasticism and the Benedictine Order.188 A few words on the causes that led to the great development of monasticism conclude this most interesting and scholarly volume. 138 Duchesne, Hist. Anc. de Église, ii., p. 520. IN SPIRIT AND IN TRUTH. BY FRANCIS P. DONNELLY, S.J. NOT where His stars are spilt as golden dust, Do we revere the God in Whom we trust; Nay, He is God of fruits and sunlit day, God of the flowers and clasping hands of earth, Who moulds the marvels of a mother's heart. Yet, Love all beauteous, in created clay Thou couldst not set a semblance of Thy worth, |