rights," failure in its maintenance among the various members of a society, is as certain to be followed by injurious consequences, as is failure of the intellect to direct the operations of its many subjects. Being Heaven's first and greatest law, the feeling of its necessity exhibits itself, whensoever and wheresoever men come together the most disorderly of beings, the very pirates of the ocean, always selecting some certain person to be invested with the authority needed for maintaining discipline among themselves, and for securing that there be a fair division of the plunder among both the absent and the present.

The first and greatest obstacle to association being found in the necessity for effecting changes of place, one of the earliest wants of man is found in the need for roads. At first, the footpath supplies the only means of intercourse, but as men increase in number, the pack-horse takes the place of man - the value of the latter rising because of his centering in himself all the power thus obtained. In time, however, other and better roads are needed; but now the difficulty arises, that the owner of the pack-horse, in his ignorant selfishness, opposes their construction, under the belief, that his services and those of his animals, may be thereby lessened in their power to command remuneration. The farmer, too, opposes it, for the reason, that it will divide his farm-wholly overlooking the fact, that the economy of transportation will probably double the money-value of his property. In this state of things, society, by its head, steps in- deciding the terms upon which the land shall be yielded for the general purposes, and upon what terms the owner of the land shall be entitled to use the road. Later, turnpikes and railroads are needed, but how, in the absence of a co-ordinating head, could such roads be made? Were each and every proprietor along the line, to make his separate piece, each would be owner of his share determining for himself the charge for its use, and endeavoring to obtain, at the cost of all the others, the largest portion of the tolls. Here, again, society comes in-fixing the terms upon which the land may be taken, and the tolls that may be claimed — at the same time creating an artificial man, and authorizing the head of the body thus created to guide and direct the operations.

Water is needed-each and every person being now obliged to go daily to the distant river for his day's supply, and the whole

combined wasting, in each successive year, more labor than would, if at once applied, bring the river to their doors. Who, however, is to do it? Being done by A and B, C and D would profit by it-paying nothing for the service. Society now interferes — deciding that what is for the good of all, must be done by all, and authorizing the authorities of the town to do the work at the public cost. Each then obtains his supplies in return for diminished effort-giving the body corporate only a small per centage of the product of the labor thus economized.

The precious metals pass in lumps, each exchange involving a necessity for weighing of the pieces. Seeing that much labor may be saved, society, by its head, authorizes certain persons to receive such lumps as may be brought to them—to test their quality to make them up in pieces of a certain weight and shape -and then to stamp them with certain marks, as evidence that they had passed through proper hands.

So, too, with regard to weights and measures- commerce being much facilitated by the determination of the precise idea that is to be conveyed by the expressions- a yard of cloth- a pound of butter- a ton of coal- a bushel of wheat.

Valuable minerals exist, and in abundant quantities, but who shall make the investigations required for bringing such treasures to the light? A and B have tried it, but have failed. All are likely to be largely benefited by such discoveries, but none are willing to risk the large expenditure they may require. Society now steps in bringing science to their aid, showing where such deposits may be safely looked for, and requiring all to pay their quota towards explorations promotive of the good of all.

The losses by sea are so very great as to add largely to the tax of transportation, to the great detriment of those who own, and those who farm the land. That this evil may be removed, there is needed a knowledge of the laws of the currents and the winds, but who shall study them? Being for the good of all, it should be done at the cost of all, and society, by its head, requires that it be so done.*

* At a cost so trivial as to be wholly unworthy of notice, Lieut. Maury, of the U. S. Navy, under the authority of the Government, has brought together, in the last ten years, an amount of information in reference to winds and currents, whose annual value to the world, in the economy of time, property, and life, counts by millions of dollars.

In default of evidences of marriage and of birth, property is frequently retarded on its way to the proper heirs. Seeing this, society determines that certain persons shall keep records of births, marriages, and deaths-thereby facilitating all future operations in regard to the transfer of lands, houses, stocks, and other property, at the death of their present owners.

Schools are needed, but the rich are indisposed to pay for educating the poor, and the poor are unable to educate themselves. To the former, society now says, that the strength of a community increases in the ratio of the development of the powers of its members; that with every step in that direction, land acquires increase of value; that diffusion of intelligence tends to the promotion of morality, and thereby gives increased security to person and to property; that the rich are, therefore, directly interested in the education of the poor; that it is for the good of all; and that, therefore, all must contribute a small per centage upon the value of their properties, to be so applied.

A city requires to be supplied with gas, and, for that purpose, extensive works are to be erected, and miles of pipes required. to be laid. Who shall do it? The city owns the streets, and if it grants permission to use them, without conditions, it thereby creates a monopoly, that may become most oppressive. The city head decides the terms upon which the obstacles to combination among the makers of gas, and those who desire to consume it, may be removed - the head of the State, at the same time, authorizing the former to combine among themselves, for carrying the arrangement into full effect.

Among the community there are some who are blind, while others are deaf, dumb, or otherwise deprived of power to provide for their own support. They cannot be allowed to perish, yet who shall contribute to their relief? In answer to this question, society says, that it is a common burthen, to the carrying of which each shall contribute in the ratio of his means-thus distributing among those who have been favored by Heaven, the care of those who have been less fortunate.

Drainage being needed, the health of the community is affected. Who shall do it? What is the business of all is that of none, and marshes remain undrained. At length, however, society determines that what is for the good of all, must be done at the cost

of all

- the rich and the poor being required to contribute in the ratio of their respective interests.

Epistolary intercourse must be maintained, but how can it be done? In the absence of combined action, the few who are rich and powerful can afford to send their letters by special messengers -profiting largely by information obtained in advance of their weaker neighbors. To remove this difficulty, and in the interests of all, society takes charge of the correspondence- transmitting letters to a distance of thousands of miles, and receiving in return a smaller amount of money than is usually paid for carrying a single letter to an adjoining street.

A country embraces all the varieties of soil and climate requisite for a very varied agriculture, from the barley of the north to the sugar of the south; and yet, in default of the introduction of many articles, its inhabitants are compelled to go abroad from year to year-paying three, four, or five times, the original cost, and thus losing annually, a greater amount than would, if properly applied, give to its farmers new employment for labor and land, that would add largely to the general wealth. In this state of things, society comes to their aid — asking each and every contributor to the tax of transportation to pay, into a common fund, a small per centage of its amount, to be applied to the introduction of seeds and knowledge, by means of which they may, in a brief period, be relieved from the payment of further contributions.*

Schools develop the various faculties of the younger portion. of the community, but in default of diversity in the modes of employment, those who would have distinguished themselves in the workshop are compelled to remain idle, if they would not follow the plough, or begin to trade. Iron ore and fuel abound, but, there being no furnaces in which the former can be smelted, both

*The amount paid annually for transporting tea to the United States, would probably suffice for securing the successful establishment of the tea culture at home. Such a work, however, would ruin any individual, as it has already beggared the enterprising man by whom it was, some years since, undertaken. The tea seed must be procured from China, whose people naturally resist the exportation of the best seed, as prejudicial to their interests. So the tea shippers, commission merchants, importers, &c., regard the establishment of the tea culture here as a deadly blow to the craft whereby they have their wealth. Then, the proper climate, soil, and culture, in this country, have all to be ascertained by patient and repeated experiments, which, however triumphant in their results, must be costly in their progress.

remain idle in the earth, and the farmer can with difficulty obtain a plough. Wool abounds, but there is no woollen mill, and the farmer's daughter is idle, while he, himself, is unable to obtain a coat. Corn abounds, but the cost of transporting it to a distant market, leaves its producer little to pay for either machinery or clothing. A furnace and a mill are needed, but who shall build them? Building materials, and labor unemployed, abound, but how can they be combined? Those who might undertake the work, would speedily find, that, however much their operations might tend towards increasing the quantity of cloth and iron obtainable in exchange for food and labor, their distant competitors would still so far control the market as to drive them from it, to their own entire ruin-fearing which, the furnace and the mill would remain unbuilt; labor would remain unemployed; fuel, ore, and food, would remain superabundant; the farmer would continue to give the larger part of the clothing-power of his corn for freight on the remainder; and the whole people would continue poor.-In this state of things, society says to the farmers and laborers, that the establishment of mills and furnaces would double the value of both land and labor, and that to enable them to combine their efforts for the erection of such establishments, it will require of the foreign producers of cloth and iron a certain portion of the value of all they may import-applying the proceeds to the making of new and better roads, or to paying the expenses of government; thus, while relieving them, at once and forever, from the oppressive tax of transportation to the distant market, improving the modes of communication among themselves.

In all these cases, the political head does exactly that which, as we have seen, has been provided to be done by the physical one-co-ordinating the movements of the various members of the society in such manner as to remove the obstacles which stand in the way of association, and prevent that diversification of the employments of society which is required for adding value to land and labor, and giving freedom to man. The more perfect that co-ordination, whether in the physical or social body, the more complete must be the development of all the parts, and the more harmonious the action of the whole.

It may, however, be said, that the exercise of these various