books; and, after two or three generations, the teachers of our district will have for their use a valuable library. Is, then, the thought of working for the future of no estimation to the good man, and is not even that thought for us, as says Lafontaine, a fruit which to-day we enjoy?

But, besides the satisfaction of founding a work for which our_successors will bless us, we ourselves will reap from it precious advantages. By associating, we unshackle the means of instruction. The books besides, which after deliberation and common consent we procure, will be better selected, than if each had been left to his own knowledge. And if you adopt my views of the course to be followed in the acquisition of books, if you select them according to fixed principles, agreed to beforehand, they will form, in the very first year, in spite of their fewness, a finished whole. Ten, twenty volumes selected with judgment, according to a certain plan, and which, by referring to each other, mutually complete and explain each other, are-in spite of the variety of their contents and immediate object-more valuable than three or four times as many works, excellent, perhaps, but chosen at random and inconsequently. From this, it follows, that after ten years association, we might have at our command, not only ten times more books than we would have had, if each had been left to his own resources; but that these books, more judiciously selected, will have a relative value much greater than the same, or double the number of volumes collected at random.

An association affords still another advantage in this respect. There are works composed of several volumes, and whose price is such, that the majority of teachers are incapable of procuring them at their own expense. United, we can acquire, if necessary, even very expensive works, and some of these publications may be indispensable.

We may, besides, entertain the hope that other teachers will soon join us. I cherish another hope; I hope, if we persevere, that the communities of our district, that the higher committee of our parish and the academy, will come to our aid. As we think not of ourselves alone whilst we are endeavoring to enlarge the limits of our instruction, but of our schools and of the future, we can, without a blush, invoke the assistance of all who are interested in popular edu cation of the citizens who discover in it a means of public felicity-and of the authorities intrusted with its direction. Works, we do not doubt, will pour in from different sources, and, if we seriously wish it, we will soon have at our disposal a stock of books, sufficiently respectable to constitute the nucleus of a

DISTRICT-SCHOOL LIBRARY.

I come to the second objection—the difficulty of making a suitable selection among so many books. This difficulty is serious; but in proportion to the scantiness of our means, we are less liable to be misled. This consideration, far from discouraging us, ought only to impress still more deeply the principles which ought to guide our selection.

The number of works on all subjects, has, for a century especially, prodigiously increased. The science of education, for a long time neglected, and treated by some distinguished writers only at distant intervals, reckons, in our days, its books by hundreds-if we comprehend those addressed especially to childhood and youth. But we must not be frightened by this multitude; this riches, in the main, is but apparent. Many of those works whose titles swell the catalogues of the booksellers, are old and obsolete; many others are but imitations and of little value. Good writers of every kind are not numerous; and even among the good, a selection can be made. The essential point is to know how to select well. As to old books, we will trust to their reputation, which seldom misleads; and as to new books, we will consult enlightened men. Of the works recognized as good, we will always select the best and the most complete. To read much is not the principal point, but to read well; and to read often the best productions. The fruits which may be reaped from reading, depend as much upon the manner of reading, as upon the excellence of the books read.

Our library will be composed of three kinds of works. In the first rank, we shall place such as treat of the art of education; of teaching in general; of primary instruction in particular. It will not be necessary to secure a great number of books of this class; a few solid and complete treatises, which epitomise the science, will suffice for the commencement. The most essential precepts and the rules universally approved, are found in all good productions of

any length. To good treatises, however, to encyclopedic manuals, which exhibit pedagogy as a whole, and which, faithful to the precept, prove all things and cleave to what is good-unite what even the different methods possess of most practical and reasonable-we will add, later works upon the most remarkable special methods. Still later, in a few years, we may be able to admit into our collection a certain number of works already old, which, like Rousseau's Emile, have formed an epoch in the history of the art of education; then, to keep pace with the progress of the science, we only have to procure, at distant intervals, some good new treatise.

The second series of works of our future library, should consist of such as expound either the whole or some branch of primary instruction; of manuals of religion and morality; of arithmetic, geography, and general or national history; natural history, physics, hygiane, agriculture, and technology; written expressly for teachers, children, and the people.

Finally, the richest portion of our library might be composed of instructive and rare works, which, while adding to our knowledge, will afford useful relaxation, and the means of infusing into our lessons a wholesome variety; of exciting and sustaining the attention of our pupils, and of throwing an interest around our teaching.

I rank in this third class of books, first, extracts or selections from travels in the different quarters of the globe. They will supply the place of the original narratives, too dear, and which include, besides, generally many very useless details, or things already known. There is scarcely any kind of reading more interesting than the history of travels in distant countries, and which furnishes the most useful materials for the instruction of youth.

Secondly, historical works, particularly natural history, selecting, in preference, such as have been composed for the young of schools. We might extract from them, to narrate to our pupils, those traits of magnanimity and devotedness to one's country and humanity, which constitute the beauty and honor of history.

Thirdly, I would place in our library a few religious and national poets; good anthologies; selections and collections of pieces in prose and verse; a few books more especially written for the instruction and amusement of childhood and youth, and which can be read to and by our pupils.

Fourthly, popular works which, addressed directly to the people, in towns and in the country, strive to snatch them from the misery of ignorance, to render them better and happier; and which adapt to their capacity, morality, counsels of prudence, and the most interesting and useful results of science in general. Till each parish possess its own library, we shall form, as it were, an intermediate stage, a connecting link, between science and the people. To explain these books, and to facilitate the comprehension of them, we must ourselves be thoroughly acquainted with them. We will find in them, besides, an abundant source of instruction for ourselves and for our pupils.

In short, my dear Colleagues, our library ought to consist of a small number of works on methods; manuals of all the branches of primary instruction and of the education of the people; and many instructive and popular works. Thus, all works of pure amusement, and such as are not addressed directly either to schools or youth, to the people or to the teachers of the people, must be excluded. By confining ourselves within these limits, our selection will not be difficult; especially if we be guided by men well versed in such matters. Let us begin the work; let us persevere in the prosecution of it; and soon we shall have to congratulate ourselves on having undertaken it, and on having founded, at the expense of a few light sacrifices, an institution of incontestible utility.'"

MEANS OF IMPROVING

THE

PECUNIARY CONDITION OF TEACHERS IN FRANCE.

THE provisions of the French law respecting Teachers' Conferences and Libraries, and the remarks of M. Willm, are intended to show how teachers, by association, may add to the acquirements of the Normal School, keep pace with new methods and discoveries, clear up the difficulties and supply the wants met with in their particular position; and escape from that meaningless routine of practices, and dull uniformity of character, to which their profession pursued alone exposes them. But the French law aims, although imperfectly, to ameliorate the teacher's condition, and the condition of his family, by guarding against present and future want. On these points M. Willm makes many judicious suggestions from which American teachers may profit.

"If poverty be always an evil, it is especially so to the teacher; because it prevents him from performing efficiently his duty, and enjoying due distinction. His functions will be doubly painful, if the cares of the morrow deprive him of the energy sufficient to accomplish his daily task. I demand not wealth for the teacher: I ask not that he be rich, but beyond the reach of indigence; that he be able to live in honest ease, without being obliged to devote himself to labors foreign to his profession; that he have the power to continue his studies, to support a family, and to enjoy an honorable repose in his old age-if Heaven accord him length of days-or die undisturbed as to the future lot of his children, if carried away from them in the midst of his career.

The condition of the teacher is at present widely different from this. The law of 1833 has undoubtedly bettered his lot;-and it were ungrateful to deny it. It may be said, indeed, that in general, schoolmasters are better paid in France than in most other countries. In Germany there are a considerable number who do not gain the minimum salary of four hundred francs; and even in Prussia, the average-every thing included-is, for a town-teacher, eight hundred francs; for a country teacher, about three hundred francs: and let us remark that, in Prussia, living is much dearer than in France. It is not necessary to reckon up in detail our every-day expenses, to be convinced that, with such a paltry income, it is wholly impossible to maintain housekeeping on the most economical principle; and that a family of industrious laborers has much greater chance of prospering than that of a teacher.

In France, I repeat, teachers are, in general, much better paid. In towns, it is seldom that they do not gain from one thousand to twelve hundred francs; and in several localities their income exceeds this. In the country, there are few whose salary is under five hundred francs; and many gain a great deal more. But five hundred francs and one thousand francs are but poor remuneration for three hundred and sixty-five days' labor; for to gain even that sum, the teacher is most frequently obliged to add to the functions of schoolmaster, those of beadle, organist, and chanter; such a sum is too inconsiderable to support a family; for we always take for granted that the teacher is married, and has a family and that so he sets a good example, and is rendered more qualified to train men and citizens.

The condition of teachers must therefore be improved; it must be rendered more pleasant, and, at the same time, more respected, not only with a regard to their interests, but especially for the sake of schools, of the people, and of the state itself.

1. Teachers may themselves do much to ameliorate their lot, and raise their condition. They must remember the old proverb-help yourself, and Heaven will help you. M. Schlez, a much esteemed German teacher, thinks that a teacher should always follow some trade, avoiding scrupulously, however, every degrading calling, or which might bring him into competition with the inhabitants of the district. He proposes, as compatible with the functions of the teacher of the people, gardening; the cultivation and grafting of trees; the rearing of bees and silk-worms; musical instrument-making; clock-making; bookbinding; bandbox-making; moulding; painting; the art of turning; the construction of barometers and thermometers; the duties of copyist and bookkeeper-and, finally, private lessons. But many of these occupations would require too long an apprenticeship, or engage too much time, to render them lucrative; or they would need an outlay beyond the ordinary means of a teacher. Country teachers might find a valuable resource, as well as a noble recreation, in the cultivation of a garden of limited extent, which all districts ought to have at their disposal; and the ground of which, if it could not be purchased, they might almost always find opportunity to rent.

The art of gardening, which includes the grafting of trees, the cultivation of useful plants and of flowers, appears the most compatible with the occupation of teachers; between them are close analogies. That art can be learned at small expense, and in a short time. The teacher who, from his being well paid, needs not devote himself to pursuits foreign to his profession, might follow it simply for amusement; others would find it a means of improving their condition: and the employment would neither be degrading nor fatiguing. I have seen one of these gardens cultivated by a teacher, whose school was a garden blessed to him by Heaven. One division of it furnished kitchen vegetables; another was planted with fruit-trees of the best sorts; a third, was a nursery exceedingly varied, and flowers abounded in every quarter. Often he led to it his select pupils; his garden was at once a source of pleasure and profit to himself, and of instruction to his school. This example ought to be generally imitated. To the cultivation of a garden and orchard, country teachers might join, according to circumstances, the rearing of bees or silk-worms. During winter, study and instruction ought exclusively to occupy them, and nothing should prevent their keeping an evening-school for adults, or for young people from fifteen to twenty years of age, as is done in several districts of Alsace. This evening-school, which might be of great utility, would supplement a little income; and it depends but on the interest they had in it, to induce a great number of their old pupils to take an active part in this additional instruction. Bandbox-making and book-binding, would likewise be suitable occupations, but not very lucrative.

Shall I inform the country teachers that they have in their own power another means of being in less uneasy circumstances, and that this means is rigid economy, a retired and unassuming life? I have scarcely courage to do so, for the majority are indeed forced to be economical. There is, however, a considerable number who frequent inns and coffee-shops; and who are too much engaged in public amusements, little compatible with the moral authority which they ought to exercise, or with the state of their fortune. Without preventing them, on certain occasions, from mingling with public life, and sharing the honest pleasures of society, they ought to be counseled not to be prodigal of themselves, nor to court these occasions; but carefully to avoid whatever may tend to compromise their dignity, or lead them into useless expense.

In several Normal Schools, the pupil-masters are taught to draw up civil acts, as a great many of them will one day become registrars at the mayoralty. Such functions very well correspond with those of teachers in small parishes where there are few acts to write, provided the registrar-teacher can abstain from mixing himself up with the municipal passions, often very violent in the smallest villages. Some, likewise, compete with the notary, and for a trifling salary, draw out contracts in private.

Land-surveying affords another resource; a very inconsiderable number can be employed in it, and little dependence should be placed on it.

In short, besides a life sober and modest, the cultivation of trees, the rearing of bees and silkworms, a little rural and domestic economy, private lessons, the functions of registrar, land-surveying, and, perhaps, book-binding and bandboxmaking, are the methods by which teachers may ameliorate their condition,

without neglecting their duties, or derogating from their dignity. There is, however, still another resource which might be valuable: it is that which teachers may find in the assistance of their partners: if they knew well how to choose-if they chose not such as are rich, but such as are economical, welleducated, good, and intelligent. I know some who are not only good housekeepers, but who render great services to the community by the examples and lessons they give to the young girls of the district.

Teachers' wives, in the absence of sisters or governesses, properly so called, ought to be able to undertake the teaching of needle-work and other similar branches, as well as the management of infant-schools, throughout all the rural districts. Their rank, as mothers, far from being an obstacle, would adapt them still better for the discharge of such functions; and when temporarily pre vented from accomplishing them themselves, they would easily find among the young girls they had trained, assistants to supply their place.

2. Communes (corresponding to our parishes, towns and districts) may place at the disposal of the teacher a portion of ground capable for farming, an orchard and garden. To the school-house, which the 12th article of the organic law obliges every parish to provide for the teacher, ought always to be annexed, in the country, a piece of ground for a garden. If it were impossible to purchase such a piece of ground, the parish might secure it on a long lease, or supply its place by an annual indemnification of fifty francs to the teacher. In fine, the parishes that possess the means, should be obliged to supplement the fixed legal salary, in proportion to the increase of their ordinary revenue. Several general councils have voted funds to indemnify teachers who attend conferences, and to aid in the maintenance of libraries established by them. This example ought to be generally imitated. Instead of limiting themselves to making up the exact legal salary of teachers, when the revenues of the parishes are deficient, the counties ought to aid such as can not raise the salary of their schoolmasters to the minimum of five hundred francs, comprising every kind of emolument. The majority of the general councils vote funds for improving the breed of horses and cattle; why could they not establish a few premiums for the amelioration of mankind? Why could they not grant, every year, a few prizes to the best teachers of each district-those whom the reports of the inspectors and the committees recognized as the best? In fine, the parishesand, they failing, the counties and the state-ought always to provide a moderate retiring provision for deserving teachers; so that they may not dread retiring, when age unfits them for the maintenance of discipline. The higher school authorities,—the departmental and county councils,—could add to the premium now required by law.

3. The nation alone can make thorough provision for the necessary amelioration of teachers, who are now public functionaries, and intrusted with the education of the people. That they may discharge their functions with courage and devotedness, it is necessary, after they have been properly trained in the Normal Schools, and their morality and capacity well attested, to make them a suitable appointment, so as to enable them to devote themselves exclusively to their school-duties; to live honorably, though unostentatiously, and to continue improving themselves. It is necessary, besides, to afford them a pension when old age renders retreat imperative, and to remove from them all apprehensions as to the lot of their families should they die prematurely-victims of their zeal in executing their painful duties.

Let me be permitted to observe, that the law of June, 1833-that law, in other respects, so full of wisdom, which grateful posterity will always quote with respect, and from which dates truly good primary instruction in Francethat law, I say, whilst declaring popular schools a public obligation, a social necessity, and raising teachers to the rank of communal and irremoveable functionaries, has not done enough to render their condition what it ought to be, nor sufficiently armed the executive for the strict execution of the law.

The twelfth article says, that every parish teacher shall be provided with a locality, properly situated for a habitation and the reception of pupils. I have mentioned, elsewhere, how this order of the law has, in many places, been exe. cuted; and in what sense many parishes understand the word properly.

The same article guarantees the primary teacher a fixed salary of at least two hundred francs: it is now pretty generally acknowledged, that the minimum should be raised to three hundred francs: it results from calculations made by