struction in the Normal School of the department in which he resides, to learn new methods, or improve his previous acquirements. The departments are authorized to grant assistance to such teachers. The Normal Schools admit pupils of different religious denominations. All sectarian instruction is avoided in the general lessons, and the pupils receive this instruction at times set apart for it from clergymen of their own church. Until a pupil has obtained a certificate of his proficiency in the doctrines of his own religion, from a minister of his own church, he can not officiate as a schoolmaster. Any person who ventures to conduct a public school without having obtained from the departmental committee of examination a certificate of qualification, is liable to a fine of two hundred francs.

The Departmental Committee, or Commission of Examination, is composed of at least seven members appointed by the Minister of Public Instruction, upon the recommendation of the rector of the academy. Three members at least must be selected from among those who have already exercised, or are at the time exercising the function of public teachers, and who are most likely to unite ability and integrity. It is recommended that one of the seven be a clergyman. "To act," says the Minister, in a circular addressed to each of the twenty-six rectors, "to act in concert with the three members belonging to the body of Public Instruction in these Commissions d'examen, a minister of religion will doubtless be summoned. The law has put moral and religious instruction in the foremost rank; the teacher, therefore, must give proof of his being able to communicate to the children intrusted to his care, those important ideas which are to be the rule of their lives. Doubtless every functionary of public instruction, every father of a family who shall be placed on this commission by your recommendation, as rector of the academy, will be fully able to appreciate the moral and religious attainments of the candidates; but it is, nevertheless, fit and proper, that the future teachers of youth should exhibit proof of their capacity in this respect, before persons whom their peculiar character and special mission more particularly qualify to be judges in this matter."

The most important of all the duties devolved upon these examining commissions, is that of conferring on the pupil, when he quits the institution, a brevet de capacite. Carelessness, partiality, or ignorance, in the discharge of it, would entirely defeat the main object of the law on primary instruction. This brevet, certifying the holder's fitness to be a teacher, either in the lower or higher grade of primary schools, constitutes his passport to the labors and honors of his profession. With it, and his certificate of good conduct in his pocket, he may carry his skill and industry to any market he pleases, without further let or impediment.

There are three grades of certificates of qualification for both elementary and superior primary; tres bien, (very good,) bien, (good,) and assezbien, (sufficient,) which infuses a spirit of competition throughout the pupils of the Normal Schools, and the public schools generally.

The system of Normal Schools has remained substantially on this basis to the present time. Every year has extended and consolidated its influence in spite of the interested opposition of old and inefficient teachers, who find themselves less and less appreciated, and the complaint of local committees, who in many instances are disposed to take up with the first teacher who presents himself, whether qualified or not. Their number has increased from forty-three in 1833 to ninety-three in 1849, including ten Institutes belonging to the Brothers of the Christian Doctrine, and three for female teachers, under the auspices of an association of Christian Education, on a similar plan. In 1834 there were but 1,044 graduates of

Normal Schools employed in the primary schools; in 1848, this number had increased to 10,545.

The Revolution of 1848, disturbed the quiet working of the Normal Schools. The circular of M. Carnot, in March, 1848, exhorting all the schoolmasters of France to use their influence in the ensuing elections to promote the return of sincere republicans, and to combat the popular prejudice which preferred "the rich and lettered citizen, a stranger to the peasant's life, and blinded by interests at variance with the peasant's interests," "to the honest peasant endowed with natural good sense, and whose practical experience of life was better than all the book-learning in the world," caused a reaction against the schoolmasters, when the Revolution gave way to a new style of government in 1850. Teachers who had sympathized and acted in the spirit of the above circular were suspended or dismissed-and the vigorous working of the Normal schools was in various ways weakened. Under the legislation of 1833, the admission to these schools was by competitive examination. By the law of 1850, all examination at entrance was abolished; and the prefect in departmental council, admitted candidates by his own nomination, on their production of certificates of morality and good conduct. Many candidates thus admitted proved utterly incompetent, and in 1855, the minister, M. Fortoul, re-established an entrance examination, no longer competitive, and only in the elementary branches.

To award the certificate of capacity, there sits twice a year, in the chief town of every department, an examination commission of seven members, named by the departmental council; one of the members must be a primary inspector, one a minister of the same religious persuasion as the candidate. The examination is limited to the obligatory studies of the primary school. Any person aged not less than eighteen may appear as a candidate, giving a months' notice of his intention. Exercises in penmanship, dictation, and grammar, and the four rules of arithmetic, including fractions, are performed by the candidates; and if these are satisfactory, then each candidate is examined separately by the commission in reading, religious knowledge, grammar, and arithmetic. Those who pass this examination satisfactorily, may then be examined in all, or any of the optional studies which may now be introduced into the higher class of primary schools. When all is concluded, a list of the successful candidates is drawn up in the order of merit and forwarded to the rector of the Academy who issues the certificate, on which is entered special mention of the optional subjects, and of the degree of satisfaction given to the exercises. The names of those who hold certificates is then entered on the list of admissibility drawn up yearly for each department, and from which the prefect makes his nomination to vacant public schools. The last list contains notes of favorable reports by examination commissions. In 1859, there were in France 70 Normal schools for schoolmasters, with 2,750 students, and 30 institutions for schoolmistresses, besides a number of religious houses for training novices for schools under their auspices.

CONFERENCES, OR TEACHERS' ASSOCIATIONS,

AND TEACHERS' LIBRARIES.

THE suggestion of M. Cousin in his Report* as to the utility of conferences of teachers, was not acted upon by the Council of Public. Instruction until 1837. In February of that year, a law was presented by the Minister of this department and passed by the Chambers on this subject. The substance of this law is presented in the following remarks by M. Willm, in his valuable treatise on the Education of the People.

"This law treats, in the first place, of the object of conferences; and then, of their epochs and government. The first article authorizes the teachers of one or several districts to assemble, with the sanction of the local authorities, and, under the close inspection of the committee of the department, to confer amongst themselves on the different subjects of their teaching-on the ways and methods they employ-and on the principles which ought to be adopted in the education of children and conduct of masters. Every other subject of discussion must be excluded from these conferences.' In regard to this article, I would observe, that it would not be advantageous for teachers who thus assemble to be very numerous; and that they must avoid coming from too great a distance to the place of meeting. Neither must they be very few in number; because, in that case, there would be too little variety and animation in their labors; but, were they more than twelve or fifteen, each would not be able to take an active part in the proceedings.

The second article reminds teachers that the law has placed at the head of the subject-matters of instruction, moral and religious instruction; and that it is their duty to occupy themselves with it. From this it seems to follow, that teachers belonging to different sects must not assemble together in the same conferences. In Alsace, for example, priests or ministers are generally presidents-which is a stronger reason for teachers of different communions not assembling promiscuously together.

The third article says, that the superior committees will point out to the different assemblies the subjects on which the attention of the teachers ought more especially to be fixed. These committees hitherto have, unfortunately, occupied themselves very little with such conferences; some even have opposed their formation, or given them an organization very different from that recommended by the royal council. Can there be no means of remedying this omnipotence of the committees, and regulating that liberty, in such a way as not to risk anarchy ?

According to the fourth article, 'each teacher may beg permission to give an account of what he has read since last meeting, to make observations on the works in connection with primary instruction recently published, to read some essay of his own on the discipline of schools, or on some one of the branches of instruction.' Each may, besides, address to the assembly a verbal communication on the art of teaching, submit to it a doubt or difficulty, which in his daily practice he may have met.

The eighth article says that the president of the conferences must always be appointed by the rector of the academy. The president ought, wherever possible, to be selected from such as are not members of the association; he should be some friend and connoisseur of popular education, without being teacher; he will thus direct the debates and labors of the conference with more authority and a wider range of view; the information which he displays in the discharge

⚫ See page 418.

of his duties will be more varied and profound; and he will be, in the midst of teachers, the interpreter of what the world expects from them.

Every thing will depend on the manner in which their labors are directed, and on the zeal with which the teachers engage in them. One of the principal results of conference ought to be, the exercising them in speaking. Speech is the instrument of the art of teaching. In the management of a school, and in all that concerns the mechanism of teaching, the teacher ought to speak little; his commands ought to be brief; and, in most cases, a word, a gesture, a look will suffice. But in teaching, properly so called, when he is engaged in expounding the first truths of morality and religion, in explaining what has been read by the pupils, in narrating to them the history of the Bible or national history, (sacred or profane history,) in telling them of the wonders of the heavens and the earth-then he must be able to speak with fluency, clearness, and precision, if not eloquently. Children, like men, are fascinated by the charms of speech. The choicest things, badly said, cuce on them no impression; and -like arrows, darted by a feeble and trembling hand-glide, so to speak, over the surface of their mind, and never reach its depths.

The essays of the teachers may consist of two kinds. One class may be written on any subjects, but should be analogous to what teachers prescribe to their most advanced pupils-such as some scene of nature or of human life, a grand or useful thought, an historical fact, &c. These essays ought not to be long; and must be written with that correct simplicity, which is as far removed from the inelegancies of a vulgar style, as from the far-fetched phraseology of the Wit. These first essays-exercises in composition and thought-will also be a means of perfecting the teachers in the art of speaking. The other kind of essays, treating of some branch of the pedagogic art, may be more directly useful to them. In composing them, their memory, their own experience, rather than books, ought to be consulted; and simplicity and truth, rather than novelty and originality, ought to be aimed at. The greatest possible clearness, precision, and actual utility ought to be the distinguishing features of these essays. In some societies of teachers, the same question is offered to the consideration of all the members,-thus creating amongst them a species of competition: but as every essay must be read and discussed during the meeting, they would be restricted, in following this mode of procedure, to the composition only of two or three a-year; or obliged to multiply, beyond measure, the number of the meetings; and in both cases the interest would be, inevitably, diminished. It is desirable, however, that at each sitting, the same subject be handled by two members. The two essays would compete with each other, and occasion a discussion; which the president would take care to manage, so that all might speak in rotation, and that no one, while speaking, take undue advantage. Every expression of praise or censure, every observation tending to shock selfesteem or modesty, ought, on all sides, to be prohibited. If, at the termination of the sitting, the majority be not sufficiently instructed, they could commission the president, or another member, to resume the discussion at the next conference.

On other occasions, to vary still farther the proceedings, the author of an essay could address it some days before the meeting, in the form of a letter, to one of his colleagues, requesting his opinion of it. The letter and reply might then be read, and their contents discussed in the ordinary manner. This procedure is preferable, in my opinion, to the practice of several societies in Germany. After the reading of an essay, a member is then enjoined to present a criticism of it at next meeting. This method is accompanied with serious inconveniences. Self-love becomes a willing co-operator. The critic endeavors, by every means, to find cause for controversy, and believes himself, in some sense, obliged to think differently from him whom he has been appointed to judge. In this manner concord and friendship, so necessary to the prosperity of the association, are, without great benefit to truth, seriously compromised.

I would add, that copies of all the essays should be deposited in the library, where every one might consult them.

I have said that each member may demand permission to make to the assembly any communication relative to the art of teaching; to submit to it a question, a doubt, an observation, which his practice may have suggested to him. Such communications add much to the interest and utility of conferences. By means of them, the experience of each becomes, in some sense, the experience

of all. Those who have been occupied many years in teaching will aid their junior fellow-laborers.

In fine, it may happen, and it happens but too often, that, in their relations with the local authorities and the parents, differences arise, to disturb the good understanding the perfect harmony between them and the teachers. These differences should be submitted in the conferences to the appreciation of their colleagues-to the judgment of their compeers. They will thus be less subject to mistakes and anger; and, when necessary, more undaunted in repelling injustice, and in maintaining their rights.

LIBRARIES FOR THE USE OF TEACHERS IN FRANCE.

The fifteenth article of the law of February, 1837, on conferences of teachers, provides for the establishment of libraries for the use of those who attend the conferences. By means of the funds which the parishes or the county have granted for this purpose, or by means of clubbing among the teachers, a library should be formed for those who attend the conferences regularly. The books composing the library should be inserted in a catalogue, which must be verified every year. A copy of said catalogue must be sent to the Minister of Public Instruction.

M. Willm makes the following remarks on the subject:

"Such libraries may be established by teachers who do not assemble in regular conferences, or associate for such a purpose. A distinguished teacher may be conceived to address the following language to his colleagues, to induce them to establish such a society: Two principal objections may be made against this scheme. In the first place, how, with the scanty resources at our disposal, can we establish a library, in the smallest degree, complete; and then, amongst such a host of books, whose number augments every day, will not a proper selection be difficult-even impossible? In replying to these objections, I will, at the same time, let you know my views on the course to be pursued in the acquisition of books. These views are the results of my own experience, and of the counsels which, in former times, I was fortunate to receive.

I do not dissemble the importance of the doubts I am attempting to remove; the first, especially, seems but too well founded. How, indeed, with our trifling resources, can we hope to establish in a few years a library ever so little worthy of the name? We are ten members; each of us will put into the society's strong box, three shillings as entry money, and a shilling per month, or twelve shillings per annum: this is much for us-too much perhaps; and it is to be desired, that, at a later period, this monthly payment be reduced. We will thus have at our disposal, the first year, the sum of one hundred and fifty shillings. Of this sum, fifteen shillings must be spent in purchasing registers, pens, and paper; and, by adding ten shillings for small incidental expenses, our income will be reduced to one hundred and twenty-five shillings. We must become subscribers for two pedagogic journals, which may cost about twenty-five shillings a year. To lay the foundation of our library, about one hundred shillings remain.

To found, with a hundred shillings, a library, appears absurd-impossible. But let us forget for an instant the ambitious name of library, and simply say that we unite together for the purpose of procuring, in one year, ten times more books than each of us singly could purchase, and it will be granted that we are doing a judicious thing, and making an excellent speculation. Will it not be a sufficiently good result of our association, if, instead of one or two works, which perhaps each of us might have purchased, besides what are indispensable, we have at the end of the year from ten to twenty at our disposal? And supposing we continue at this rate for ten years; instead of from ten to twenty, would we not have from one hundred to two hundred, and perhaps more? And could not our collection, then, without too much vanity, be styled a library? Great things have often sprung from small beginnings. If you persevere, you will have the merit of bequeathing to your successors a considerable number of