most circumstances, involving the external perception of the eye-namely, moving up to the warm body of the mother: the young quadruped learns the lesson in a short time; the bird is even more precocious; while the human infant is very backward, and occupies weeks or months in the acquisition. The pungent and painful sensations of Touch include the case already touched on, the retraction of any part from the shock of pain. This remedy being a simple and nearly uniform action, of a kind ready to occur in the course of spontaneity, we may expect to find it associated with the painful feeling at a comparatively early date. So early do we find it, that we are apt to regard it as an instinct. The same class of sensations includes the discipline of the whip. As an acutely painful feeling, the smart of the whip has two conflicting effects; it irritates the nerves, causing spasmodic movements, and it depresses vital power on the whole. If the stimulation of the smart predominates in a vigorous animal, the effect of the whip would be to increase activity in general; hence if the animal is running, its speed is quickened. If the crushing effect of the pain predominates, the existing movements are arrested. Such are the primitive tendencies of an acute smart; and even in the educated animal, the application of the whip is best understood if in harmony with these. To quicken a laggard, the acute prick, not severe, is the most directly efficacious course; to quiet down a too active or prancing steed, a shock amounting to depression of power is more useful; the curb has this kind of efficacy. To make the animal fall into a particular pace, the whip is used with the effect of stimulating movements, in the hope that a variation may occur, and not merely an increase of degree: if the desired movement arise, the torment ceases; the animal being supposed to connect mentally the movement with the cessation. A certain age must be attained before a horse will answer to discipline by changing its movements under the whip, and abiding by the one that brings immunity. It must have passed several stages beyond the instinctive situation to arrive at this point. An interval has elapsed, during which the animal has learnt consciously to seek an escape from pain; in point of fact to generalize its experiences of particular pains and particular movements of relief, and to connect any pain with movements and the hope of relief. A certain progress, both physical and intellectual, is requisite to this consummation. FOLLOWING A LIGHT. 331 The pleasures and pains of Sound have little peculiarity. If a pleasant sound is heard, some movements will be found favourable to the effect, others adverse; the first are likely to be sustained, the others arrested. An animal, with the power of locomotion, runs away from a painful sound; the retreat being guided by the relief from the pain. A child learns to become still under a pleasant sound; there is a felt increase in the pleasure from the fixed attitude, and a felt diminution from restlessness. In Sight, we have a remarkable example of sensations uniformly influenced by movements. The pleasure of light is very strong; at all events, the attraction of the eye for a light is great. Indeed, this is a case where the stimulus given to the active members appears to exceed the pleasure of the sensation; the eye is apt to remain fixed on a light even when the feeling has passed into pain, being a kind of aberration from the proper course of the will. Now, when the infant, gazing on a flame, is deprived of the sensation, by the motion of the light to one side, being at first unable to follow, for want of an established connection between the departing sensation and the requisite turn of the head, it must wait on random spontaneity for a lucky hit. Should a chance movement of the head tend to recover the flame, that movement will be sustained by the power of the stimulation; movements that lose the light would not be sustained, but rather arrested. And, inasmuch as the same movement always suits the same case the taking of the light to one side, being a definite optical effect, and the motion of the head for regaining it being always uniform-the ground is clear for an early and rapid association between the two facts, the optical experience and the muscular movement. The situation is a very general one, applying to every kind of interesting spectacle, and involving a comprehensive volitional aptitude, the command of the visual organs at the instigation of visual pleasures. I have supposed the rotation of the head to be the first attained means of recovering objects shifted away from direct vision; but the movements of the eyes themselves will sooner or later come into play. It is evident enough, however, from the observation of children, that the power of recovering a visible thing is not arrived at during the first months. This example is instructive in various ways. The connexion of a pleasurable stimulus with heightened power has been hitherto assumed as not restricted to muscular movement; but as comprising, in undefined proportions, both muscular power and the organic functions. The acute smart, in its first or enlivening stage, may be affirmed with certainty to increase muscular energy, and to diminish the healthy vital functions. Perhaps the pungent stimulus of light is mainly expended on muscular augmentation; which alone is of service in the forming of the will. Connected with sight is another case of great interest, the adjustment of the eye to changes of distance. The guiding sensation in this case is the distinctness of the image; the infant must be aware of the difference between confused and clear vision, and must derive pleasure in passing from the one to the other. Under any theory of vision, Berkeleian or other, some time must elapse ere this difference be felt; everything at the outset being confused. As soon as the sense of a clear image is attained, the child may enter on the course of connecting the spontaneity of the adjusting muscles with the agreeable experience; as in other cases, a confirming association may be expected to follow soon, the movements concerned being few and uniform. The foregoing review of the Sensations comprises several of the Appetites-Exercise, Repose, and Hunger. The feelings of approaching Sleep are very powerful, but the state is one that provides for itself, by pure physical sequence, without special education. The resistance offered when one is prevented from going to sleep, or is reluctantly awakened, is not a primitive manifestation; the child only manifests discomfort by the appropriate emotional expressions. 3. The second step in the growth of the Will is the uniting of movements with intermediate Ends. This supposes that a sensation, in itself indifferent, can awaken interest, by being the constant antecedent of some pleasure. Thus the sight of the mother's breast is indifferent as mere visual sensation; but very soon allies itself in the infant mind with the gratification of being fed. This is a case of the contiguous transfer of a feeling, and is exemplified in all our powerful sensations and feelings. The lower animals are excited to their utmost activity by the sight of their food or their prey; they are sufficiently intellectual to have a recollection of their own feelings, and to have that awakened by some associated object. Granting the possession of these transferred sensibilities, which make the acquirement of what is only a means, as exciting to the activities as the final end, the process of connecting these with the movements for attain INTERMEDIATE ENDS. 333 ing them is precisely the same as before. Thus the act of lifting a morsel to the mouth is urged in obedience to an intermediate end, and is urged with a degree of energy proportioned to the acquired force of that end. The infant is, after a time, excited to warm manifestations by the mere approach of a spoonful to its mouth. There is an ideal fruition in the very sight of the spoon coming nearer, with a corresponding elation of tone and energy; and when the young probationer is attempting the act for itself, there is a support given to successful movements, and a tendency to sink under obvious failure. The carrying of a morsel to the mouth is one of those definite and uniform movements so favourable to the process of volitional growth. It is, nevertheless, comparatively late, owing no doubt to the length of time occupied in the preparatory associations. 4. Movements that have become allied with definite sensations, are thereby brought out, and made ready for new alliances. Spontaneity is supposed to be the earliest mode of bringing forward movements to be connected with feelings; but when a number of connexions have been once formed, the connected movements are of more frequent occurrence, and are discovered to have new influences over the feelings. Locomotion, at first spontaneous, is rapidly allied with the animal's wants, and, being called out on the corresponding occasions, may coincide with new gratifications. Connected, in the early stages, with the search for food, it may be passed on to the alliance with shelter, with companionship, with safety, and other agreeables. Introductions are constantly made to new connexions, thus overcoming the initial difficulty of obtaining the necessary coincidences. 5. Volition is enlarged, and made general, by various acquirements; and first, the Word of Command. Instead of proceeding by detailed or piece-meal associations with ends, or with pleasures and pains, the individual takes a higher step by forming connexions between all possible modes of movement, and a certain series of marks or indications, through which the entire activity of the system may be amenable to control. The first of these methods is the Word of Command. In the discipline and training, both of animals and of human beings, names are applied to the different actions, and, even tually, become the medium of evoking them. The horse is made to hear the word for halting, and at the same time is drawn in with the bridle; in no very great number of repetitions, the word alone suffices to cause the act. So in infants. By uttering names in connexion with their various movements, a means is given of evoking these movements at pleasure. The child is told to open its mouth; at first it does not know what is wished; some other means must be used for bringing on the movement, which movement is then coupled in the mind with the name. The primordial urgency of pleasure and pain,—the one to promote, the other to arrest movement,—is the motive power at the outset; and a name may become suggestive of these urgencies to the recollection, rendering them operative in the ideal form. The dog made to halt in the chase, by a word, is mentally referred by the word to the deterring pain of the whip. Also, in children, pain and pleasure, the first associates with actions, can have their motive force transferred to language, which is henceforth a distinct power in singling out desired movements. 6. Another instrumentality for extending volition is Imitation. It has often been alleged, and is perhaps commonly believed, that Imitation is instinctive. The fact is otherwise. There is no ability to imitate in the new-born infant; the power is a late and slow acquisition, and one especially favourable for testing the general theory of the growth of will. Imitation (of what is seen) implies a bond of connexion between the sight of a movement executed by another person, and the impulse to move the same organ in ourselves; as in learning to dance. For vocal imitation, the links are between sensations in the ear, and movements of the chest, larynx, and mouth. The acquirement of articulate speech may be observed to take place thus. Some spontaneous articulation is necessary to begin with; the sound impresses the ear, and possibly communicates an agreeable stimulus, the tendency of which would be to sustain the vocal exertion. At all events, there is the commencement of an association between an articulating effort or movement, and an effect on the ear. Every repetition strengthens the growing bond; and the progress is accelerated when other persons catch up, and continue the sound. The attempt may now be made to invert the order, to make the articulating exertion arise at the instigation of the sound heard. This will not succeed at first; an associa |