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in such numbers is for defence against the Arabs, and other robbers who waylay them, and endeavour to despoil them of a part of their wealth; and as they commonly require some time to collect, so it is customary for the merchants to send their goods to some place of rendezvous to be ready against the time of departing ;" nor do they travel at random when they set out, for they commonly travel four camels abreast, and are divided into cottars, or companies, who have each their peculiar standards, formed of iron work, like a grate on the top of a pole, whose shape through the day, and flame through the night, when filled with fuel, direct the merchants or pilgrims to what company they belong.b These caravans are sometimes very numerous; that from Egypt to Mecca, in 1697, consisted of 100,000 souls, according to Maillet, and nearly as many camels. The camels and horses have often bells suspended from their necks, and the road is not unfrequently beguiled by songs and music. It was in allusion to this eastern way of travelling, that Laban complained of Jacob that he had stolen away so privately as to deny him the pleasure of sending him away with mirth and with songs, with tabret and with harp.

The most ancient commercial caravan that we read of in Scripture was that which purchased Joseph of his brethren, where, although only two companies appear in our translation, there are three in the original, viz. the Ishmaelites, or descendants of Ishmael, in verse 25; the Midianites, (D) or descendants of Midian, the fourth son of Abraham by Keturah, in verse 28; and the Medanites (7) in verse 36, improperly rendered Midianites in our version, which Medan was

a Clarke's Harmer, ch. 5. ob. 4. 6.

b Harmer's Ob. vol. i. p. 472, &c. Hasselquist, p. 77–83. d Gen. xxxvii. 25, &c.

<Gen. xxxi, 27.

the third son of Abraham by Keturah," and lived in the neighbourhood of Midian. Thus their caravan consisted of three distinct companies, and their merchandize was spicery, balm, and myrrh.—We read, long afterwards, of the labour of Egypt, and the merchandize of Ethiopia, and of the Sabeans coming to Judea. Many caravans with merchandize went also to Tyre, during the period of her glory, as the general mart of nations; and in many passages of Scripture do we read of merchants travelling from place to place to dispose of their merchandize. -As for religious caravans or companies, we have none mentioned in Scripture that exactly resemble the caravans to Mecca; but we have several examples of multitudes travelling from one place to another. Thus the Israelites, in their journey from Egypt to Canaan, had all the regularity of a caravan, and the Jews which returned from Babylon under Ezra and Nehemiah, would naturally take precautions to preserve order among such a multitude.

It seldom happens that eastern monarchs make long journeys, the influence of the climate and immemorial usage keeping them commonly retired in their palaces, but when they do go abroad it is with great magnificence; and in former times harbingers were sent to prepare all things for their reception, and pioneers to open passes, level inequalities, and remove every impediment. Diodorus's account of Simiramis's marches into Media and Persia, will give us a clear notion of the preparation of the way for a royal expedition. "In her march to Ecbatane, she came to the Zarcean mountain, which extending many furlongs, and being full of craggy precipices and deep hollows, could not be passed without taking a great compass about. Being, therefore, desi

• Gen. xxv. 2.

Is. xlv. 14.

Ezek. xxvii. 9, &c.

a

rous of leaving an everlasting memorial of herself, as well as of shortening the way, she ordered the precipices to be digged down, and the hollows to be filled up; and at a great expense she made a shorter and more expeditious road, which to this day is called from her the road of Semiramis. Afterward she went into Persia, and all the other countries of Asia subject to her dominion, and wherever she went she ordered the mountains and precipices to be levelled, raised causeways in the plain country, and at a great expense made the roads passable." Long after Semiramis, Josephus, when speaking of Titus, says, that "there went before him the establishment of the king, and all the army, among whom were (odoлow) the pioneers," literally the makers or levellers of roads. It must be obvious to every one, that this gives a beauty and force to Is. xl. 3, 4. "The voice of one crying in the wilderness, prepare ye the way of the Lord, make straight in the desert a highway for our God. Every valley shall be exalted, and every mountain and hill shall be made low, and the crooked shall be made straight, and the rough places plain." The words are descriptive of John Baptist, as the harbinger of the Messiah, the king of Zion, before whose presence and religion every difficulty was to disappear.

In the absence of more particular information concerning the manner of travelling among the ancient Jews, I shall add the customs of the modern Jews when taking a journey. They make a valedictory supper the night before. When gone, their remaining relations do not sweep the house for an hour, to distinguish a journey from their manner of carrying out the dead; and when the travellers themselves reach the fourth milestone, they turn round and say, "Let it please thee, O

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Lord our God, and the God of our fathers, to lead me out, and cause me to return to my house in peace; to protect me from the hand of the enemy, and of him that lays snares in the way. Take me to my destined place, and make me return home in peace, for thou art the God who hearest prayer. Blessed be thou who hearest prayer." They are enjoined to avoid no tolls, to defraud no person, to throw themselves unnecessarily into no danger, as if God were to work a miracle in their behalf, and never to conceal that they are Jews; and, to show their jealousy of Christians, it is recommended that when walking with one who has a sword, they should keep on his right hand, to see when he drew it; and with one who has a spear on the left for the same reason; that in going up a hill the Jew should precede the Christian, and in coming down should follow, because the highest was thought to have the advantage, although it is evident that in ascending, the danger lay in being wounded before he was aware.a

SECT. VIII.

Jewish Marks of Honour and Disgrace.

1. Marks of honour which servants paid to their masters. Slaves, their price; their submissive attitude; washed the hands of their masters; served him before they ate themselves; servants of different ranks; eunuchs; singing men and singing women. 2. Marks of respect paid by inferiors in general to superiors. Bowing the head; bowing the knee; bowing to the ground; kissing the hand, or what came from it; gave them the chief seat; made yearly presents; allayed the dust before them when travelling: spreading their garments. A spear, or lamps, indicated the tent of a chief. 3. Marks of respect among equals. The salam, or salutation; eastern salutations took up much time; their way of saluting when at a distance, and when at hand; kissing; falling on the neck; taking hold of the beard. Manner of conducting visits; these held in the court in summer, and house in winter. The entertainment at an eastern visit; sprinkling with rose-water; perfuming the

a Buxtorff, Synag. Judaic. cap. 43.

guests; their signs of mirth. 4. Marks of honour paid to inferiors; those to principal officers; Joseph; Mordecai; changes of raiment; purple robe; gold buckle and clasp ; a key on the shoulder a mark of office; explanation of a horn as an emblem of dignity and power; breaking a chain a mark of freedom. 5. Marks of disgrace. Cutting off the beard; plucking off the hair; spitting in the face; clapping the hands, hissing, and wagging the head; gnashing the teeth; speaking evil of one's mother.

In every country there hath always been a distinction of ranks; and certain marks have been established to show, on the one hand, the respect which an inferior hath for a superior, and, on the other, the honour which a person of noble rank wishes to confer on humble merit. In the East, these marks have been long established, being the same almost now that they were in the times of the Old Testament; so that they serve as a commentary on this part of the Jewish customs.

For the sake of perspicuity, we shall divide our observations into four parts. 1st, Those which servants, or rather slaves, paid to their masters. 2d, Those which inferiors, in general, paid to superiors. 3d, Those which equals showed to each other: and 4th, Those marks of honour which persons of rank were wont to pay to those in a humbler station.

1st, As for the conduct of servants or slaves to their masters, this was most submissive, and from it arose their own peculiar situation, and the general state of society: for servants, among the Jews, were either strangers, meaning by that term persons of other nations who had been taken in war, or bought with money, and accounted property; or they were the children of strangers, who had been born in their house, and in the same situation as their parents; or they were Hebrews who, being poor, had sold themselves for seven years; or were sold by their creditors to pay their debts; or by their parents

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