very extensive influence in those times; and that philosophy forms the notable point of transition to the metaphysical speculations of our own age. Socinus had directed his attacks against the great mystery in the existence of the living God-the Christian dogma of the Trinity. In the system of Spinoza, philosophic Protestantism, or the progressive spirit of negation, advanced one step further; for he denied the personal existence or the living personality of God, and endeavoured to substitute for the notion of the Godhead the empty idea of the Infinite.

On the other hand, the systems of Bacon and Leibnitz were two different foundations laid in that age for a higher and a better philosophy-systems which by a more extensive development and harmonious combination of their parts might. have been moulded into a frame of philosophy thoroughly Christian. Almost all the scientific labours of Leibnitz were directed to this point, namely, the demonstration, confirmation, and exemplification of the truths of Christianity, by the aid of science. The vast system of spiritualism, exalted far above all ideas of nature, which was propounded, or rather sketched out, by Leibnitz (with the exception of some peculiar opinions and mere hypotheses), agrees perfectly with that purer Platonism which all the Christian writers and fathers of the first ages inculcated. And the fundamental principles of such a philosophy, if exposed in their native clearness and simplicity, and without adventitious alloy, are the same which in their general spirit are to be clearly traced, or are tacitly implied, in the sacred Scriptures, whose lofty purposes, however, rise far above the narrow forms and limited sphere of philosophic investigation. How well Leibnitz understood and appreciated, and how far he subscribed to the truth of the Catholic religion, has been brought to light in a singular manner in our own days;* and if we except some oversights, very pardonable under all circumstances, his philosophic sketch of the Catholic system of theology is, in its masterly brevity, one of the boldest and happiest expositions of that religion, at least for the general

*The author alludes to the Systema Theologicum of Leibnitz, first published in Paris in the year 1819, from the manuscript sent by the court of Prussia to that of France. It was published by the Abbé Emery, who accompanied the Latin original with a French translation.-Trans.

purposes of the world. The other great celebrated philosophical system of modern times was based in the principles of the philosophy of experience-a system which has tended to enlarge almost immeasurably the field of natural discoveries. As the founder of the philosophy of experience, Bacon, had conceived it, that philosophy, if we except some particular defects and individual errors, is by no means at variance with the Christian philosophy of revelation; for the latter is in itself a philosophy of experience, though of another, higher, and spiritual kind. And it is the more necessary to keep this in view, as otherwise the ordinary abyss of Rationalism can scarcely be avoided. The case is widely different when the principles of the empirical philosophy, as in Locke and his followers, are directed against everything exalted, supernatural, and spiritual in man and his consciousness. By this important distinction, Bacon is an European philosopher, like Leibnitz; but Locke is a mere English philosopher, as it was in England this Protestant philosophy sprang up, and kept pace with the Protestantism of state engendered and nurtured by the constitution of 1688. However, in England, the Protestant philosophy, true to its character, kept within the limits of a mitigated scepticism, and did not plunge into the same wild, revolutionary excesses as the French philosophy of the eighteenth century, that started with the same principles.

The high intellectual cultivation of the English is by no means confined to this negative philosophy, but is of a very peculiar character, and, like the British constitution, combines in the most singular manner the most heterogeneous elements. For although the British constitution is generally considered as the fashionable model for our times, and in one respect may indeed be so considered; yet a powerful aristocracy and many parts of the feudal constitution of the middle age are there established in a sort of harmony, or at least permanent equipoise, with the more modern elements of commerce and democracy. The heroic spirit of chivalry, and the whole moral character of the middle age, were long paramount in England; and hence in the poetry of no country, if we except the Spanish, is that spirit so conspicuous. The struggles between the houses of York and Lancaster during the fifteenth century, which, in the rugged and almost savage sternness of

those heroic characters, bear no little resemblance to the contests of the Guelfs and Ghibellines, form the heroic and traditionary, though not very remote era of British historyan era which witnessed, too, the high military glory that England acquired in the many battles and chivalrous engagements fought on the French soil. The great national poet of England, who has taken the subject of many of his dramas from that glorious period of his country's annals, maintains a sort of sceptical medium- -a kind of poetical balance between the romantic enthusiasm of elder times, and the clear-sighted penetration of modern; and it is in this peculiar combination of qualities that the originality of his genius, his unfathomable depth and high intellectual charm, partly consist. As the constitution of England—that is, the balance of her social institutions- -sprang out of the old and mighty struggles which had convulsed that country, we must not be surprised at finding in her higher poetry, which is only the image and reflection of life, the same artificial union and combination of the conflicting elements existing in her political organisation. A profound analysis of art, conducted exclusively with this view, and towards which the German mind has a strong and perhaps excessive inclination, would be foreign to my present plan. To point out the traits of analogy existing between the productions of intellect and the ages and nations to which they severally belong, may serve to throw a clearer and more vivid light on important periods and momentous epochs of history; and it is with this view I have indulged now, as formerly, in short parallels of this kind. Down to the most recent times, this marked predilection for the romantic world of the middle ages and the chivalrous days, as well as the bold genius of poets bursting through all vulgar trammels, have been the distinctive character of English poetry, and have partly tended to make it so great a favourite with all the nations of Europe.

On the other hand, the negative philosophy of the English remains true to its character, in as far as, carefully shunning all objects of a higher nature, it has for the most part made it a principle to limit its views entirely to man, without attempting to dive and penetrate into the profound mysteries of the Deity, or into the internal secrets of nature. To this a high philosophy will object, man is no isolated being; but

as he was originally placed by his Creator in nature, it is only in that connexion with God and nature that the mysteries of his inward being, and the history of his outward progress, can be fully understood and explained. In historical researches and narrations, when these are confined to special subjects and particular eras, and do not attempt the more comprehensive plan of the Philosophy of History, that confined spirit of philosophic investigation which limits its views. exclusively to man is not prejudicial; for, on the other hand, the flexible powers of poetical genius (unless their activity be cramped by the sceptical influence of a Protestant philosophy), keep the mind alive to all high and generous qualities, characteristic peculiarities, and original greatness in men and events. Hence that department of British literature which embraces historic research and narrative is peculiarly fertile, and has met with a general and European success.

The Protestantism of state, which was brought to maturity by the English constitution, was during the eighteenth century, when England held generally the foremost rank among the nations, extended and applied in the system of the balance of power to the whole continent of Europe. But the Protestantism of science which originated there, formed, together with the system of religious peace, the first foundation of Illuminism; and denotes the whole period of its history from the commencement of the eighteenth century down to the French Revolution.

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END OF LECTURE XVI.

LECTURE XVII.

Parallel between the religious peace of Germany and that of the other countries of Europe.-The political system of the Balance of Power, and the principle of false Illuminism prevalent in the eighteenth century.

THE great benefits of the religious peace of Germany, which, founded upon and springing out of a great historical necessity, has struck such deep roots in the public mind, and at last become a second nature to the Germans, may be best appreciated by a comparison with the state of religious liberty such as it now exists, or did recently exist, among other nations— and those, in truth, which are in every other respect the most civilised of modern Europe. In Germany, indeed, the strict and vigilant maintenance of that religious peace on which her whole political existence depends, and without which she would fall into an anarchic struggle of parties, has received in recent times a new confirmation; and this religious peace, which has been revived, not indeed in its old forms, but in its general spirit and essential import, has become only the more necessary, as, by the recent partitions of territories, a great intermixture of religions has been introduced into states where formerly one religion only prevailed. Thus in that state,* which was originally the greatest of all the Protestant states of Germany, and is now even still more powerful than formerly, a full half of the population is Catholic. Nearly to the same extent the same observation will apply, though inversely, to that Catholic state in Germany which, next to the Imperial state itself, is the greatest. So strongly has this Magna Charta of the religious liberty of Germany (which scarcely needs any external securities, now that most of those securities no longer exist, or at least have been very materially altered in the forms under which they formerly existed in the The Treaty of Westphalia.

* Prussia.

+ Bavaria.