500; barley, 4.778.900; oats, 21,624,300; mixed grain, 3,761,ooo; pulse, 659.800; potatoes, 26,366,200. The total value of the crops in 1904 amounted to 243,100,000 kroner. Live stock in 1904 numbered: 546,943 horses; 2,545,583 cattle; 1, 105.903 sheep; 796,572 swine.

Mining is an important industry in Sweden. The output in 1905 was 4.364,833 tons of iron ore, producing 530,776 tons of pig and 369,771 of bar iron; 8,397 tons of silver and lead ore; 39,255 tons of copper ore; 56,885 tons of zinc ore; 1,992 tons of manganese ore; and 20,762 tons of sulphur pyrites. Besides 55 kilograms of gold, 606 of silver, 575.527 of lead, 1,385,098 of copper, and 305,000 of zinc were produced in the smelters. Considerable coal has been found in southern Sweden, yielding (1905) 322,384 tons. Mining gave employment that year to 31,222 persons.

Forestry is managed by the State in a scientific manner. The public forests have an area of 6,642,909 hectares of timber land, including 1,100,000 hectares of crown forests. There were 1,370 saw- and planing-mills in 1904 with 41,849 employees. The output of lumber was valued at 153.196,688 kroner. Furniture factories numbered 441 with 10.949 workmen; output valued at 23, 196.349 kr. The output of 135 woodpulp factories with 8,333 employees amounted to 45,035.375 kr.: 67 paper and pasteboard factories with 7,031 work-people had an output valued at 432,477,477 kr.

Manufacturing is chiefly in iron and machinery; 19,509 people were employed in 636 iron- and steel-mills and produced an output valued at 61.727.900 kr.; 424 machinery shops employed 19,710 people with an output of 55,294,000 kr.; 1,670 flour-mills with only 4.517 employees produced an output to the value of 100,362.000 kr.

Commerce and Shipping.-The imports in 1900 and 1905 amounted to 534,935,110 kroner and 582,084.457; exports, 391.334.962 kr. and 450,211,733. The customs duties amounted to 57.731,764 kr. and 60,366,568 respectively. The imports consisted (1905) principally of metal goods, machinery, etc., 75.340,683 kr.; minerals, chiefly coal, 73.841,176; corn and flour, 62,587,043; raw textiles, 55.351.198. Exports were chiefly: timber (wrought and unwrought), 201,813.518 kr.; hair, hides, and other animal products, 51.466,500; metals, 49,962,098; minerals, 40,668,344; machinery and metal goods, 37.729.192. Imports were principally from Germany, 224.364.938 kr.; Great Britain, 144,035.143. ports to: Great Britain, 159,398,772 kr.; Germany, 85,206,640.

Ex

The mercantile marine consisted (1905) of 1,950 sailing vessels with 265,748 tons, and 1,019 steam vessels with 408,124 tons. Göteborg was the largest port with 292 vessels and 147.707 tons; Stockholm second with 226 vessels and 95.817 tons.

II. Constitution and Government

Sweden is a constitutional monarchy. The present king is Oscar II. (born 1829, succeeded to the throne Sept. 18, 1872). The king has certain powers in political matters, but in others he (with his cabinet) exercises that power in conjunction with the Diet. Every new law must, however, have the assent of the crown. The right of imposing taxes is vested in the Diet.

The

The Diet consists of two chambers, both elected by the people. The First Chamber has 150 members who are elected by certain provinces, towns, and cities; they must be thirty-five years old; have taxable property worth 80,000 kroner, or an income of 4,000 kr.; they are elected for 9 years, and give their services free. Second Chamber consists of 230 members; 80 elected by the towns and 150 by rural districts. Electors must be 21 years of age; possess real estate worth 1,000 kr. or farm land worth 6,000 kr., or pay an income tax on 800 kr. The number of electors in 1905 was 432,099, or 8.2 per cent of the population; but only 217,759, or 50.4 per cent of the electors, actually cast ballots. The members of the Second Chamber are elected for 3 years; receive 1,200 kr. plus expenses in the case of extra sessions.

The municipalities and provinces enjoy much freedom in their local affairs.

Finance

The revenue of the State comes chiefly from customs, 57,000,000 kr. (1906); imposts on sugar, spirits, etc., 32,000,000; income tax, 20,950,The total revenue for 1906 was 179,270,ooo kr.; expenditure, 179,270,000. The principal

000.

Sweden

items of the expenditure were: Army, 51,293,600 kr.; navy, 22,455,700; Ministry of the Interior, 35,610,800; education and ecclesiastical affairs, 18,884,400.

The total length of railways was 7,677 miles in 1903; of which 2,612 belonged to the State. The receipts of all railways were 100,

ways, etc.

Posts, Rail- 223,312 kr.; expenses, 66,575,691; surplus, 33,647,621. They carried 36,296,648 passengers and 24,490,837 tons of freight. The total length of telegraph and telephone lines was (1904) 19,487 miles with 127,170 miles of wire; of these 14,685 miles of line with 95,118 miles of wire belonged to the State. There were 2,383 telegraph offices.

The postal service had (1904) 3,419 offices; receipts, 16,563,956 kr.; expenses, 14,635,991; surplus, 1,927,965.

The Army is just being reorganized, and will be on its new status by 1914. The new scheme provides for a modified militia with conscripts being called out for an initial training of 150 days in the infantry and artillery and 281 days in the cavalry, and with 30 yearly for the next three years.

III. Social Reform

Sweden as an agricultural country has not developed far in industrial reform. Educational and temperance reforms began earlier (see TEMPERANCE; NORWEGIAN COMPANY SYSTEM; GOOD TEMPLARS), and poor relief is older still. Homes for the shelter of poor children still exist which were founded early in the sixteenth century. The present poor-law dates from 1843, revised in 1871, and lays the burden on the parishes. Various private charities, however, supplement this.

In Stockholm a society called Föreningen för Välgörenhetens Ordnande (Society for Organizing Charitable Relief) was founded in 1889 on the same leading principles as the English and American charity organization societies. In Stockholm alone there are 400 different charitable societies.

The oldest is the "Skyddsföreningen" (Society of Protection), started by Frederika Bremer and whose president is the queen; its members visit and help the poor, their first object being the children. "Arbetsstugor" (workshops for children), where children from seven to fourteen years of age are taught sewing, knitting, basket-making, and other kinds of hand-work, are spreading over the country. A considerable number of called" model houses for workmen after the Octavia-Hill system-have been erected.

"So

"Vandrande Sparkassor" (moving savingsbanks) are formed by visitors in needy neighborhoods to induce the saving of pennies.

Cooperation, tho slow in beginning, is now rapidly spreading in Sweden. There were, in 1906, besides unregistered societies, 382 retail societies, 410 agricultural, 373 dairy and poultry, 903 building societies, 155 productive, and 301 miscellaneous. A wholesale society has been established. The growth is very rapid.

Trade-unions began in Sweden in 1880. In 1898 the unions formed into a national organization, composed of twenty-four federations with about 60,000 workers. Various Houses of the People (similar to those in Belgium) have been started. The one at Stockholm is on an especially large scale. Industrial legislation, however, has been backward and the unions have had to struggle hard for their rights. A principal aim

Switzerland

has been universal suffrage, and in 1902 there was a general strike for this purpose, only very partially successful.

Socialism entered Sweden with a tailor from

Denmark, Auguste Palm. A paper, Tiden (Times), was started and the movement spread fast. In 1885 the Swedish trade-unions became connected with the Socialist movement, as they are in all Scandinavian countries. Since 1898 this has been compulsory in Sweden. In 1893 a folkesdag (congress of the people) was organized. In 1896 the Socialists elected a deputy, Branting. In 1905 they had fifteen deputies and cast some 30,000 votes. The Socialist Party numbers, however, 55,000 paying members, only a moiety of whom can vote, because of the high property qualification (taxed on an income of 800 kr.).

The trade-unions numbered 1,300 with a membership of 80,000, or 25 per cent of the industrial workers. Of these, 850 unions with 42,000 were in the National Union. The Swedish Socialist includes 3 dailies, 10 periodicals, and 20 tradeunion papers.

Among the important Swedish social reform societies are the:

Central förbundet för Socialt arbete (Central Alliance for Social Work), 6 Lastmakaregatan, Stockholm.

Föreningen för Valgörenhetens Ordnande (Charity Organization Society), Stockholm.

Cooperative Society, 6 Lastmakaregatan, Stockholm. Temperance Society, 12 Tegnergatan, Stockholm. Frederika Bremer Forbundel (Woman's Questions), Drottninggatan, Stockholm.

54

Folkets Hus (Trade-Union House of the People), 14 Barnhusgatan, Stockholm.

REFERENCES: Sverigis Statskalendar, Upsala; Sweden, Its People and Its Industry, published by the Government, ed. B. Sundberg (1904); Scandinavia, a Political History, by R. N. Bain (1905); Sweden and the Swedes, by W. Thomas (1898): Apercus Statistiques Internationaux, by G. Sundberg (1906).

SWINTON, JOHN: Journalist, labor leader; born 1830 in Illinois; learned the printer's trade. In 1850 removed to New York City; studied law and medicine, but returned to journalism and was made chief of the editorial staff of the Times, a position he held through all the Civil War and until 1869.

After that was with Mr. Greeley on the Tribune till 1879, and then was chief writer on the Sun for several years. In 1883 he established John Swinton's Paper, a radical labor organ which acquired for a time a great influence, but unfortunately in 1886 the paper failed. Mr. Swinton then returned to ordinary journalism. In 1874, nominated for Mayor of New York on a workman's ticket, he received but 200 votes.

He was,

however, always a favorite speaker, and a popular leader in all New York labor meetings to the last. He died in 1901.

SWITZERLAND: A republic of Europe. The three cantons, Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden, entered into a defensive league Aug. 1, 1291. Since then the republic has grown until it comprizes twenty-five cantons with an area of 15,976 sq. m., and a population of 3,489,689 in 1906, or 218.4 per sq. m. The corresponding figures of the population for 1900 were 3,315,443 and 207.5.

The principal cities with population in 1905 are: Zurich, 180,843; Basel, 127,987; Geneva, 114,547; Bern, 71,748; Lausanne, 53,209; St. Gallen, 51,766.

I. Statistics

Births in 1905 were 98,057; marriages, 26, 269; deaths, 65,208 (including still-births); surplus of births over deaths, 32,853, a surplus which has

been decreasing; in 1901 it was 37,010. Illegitimate births in 1905 were 4,469, or 4.6 per cent of the total; that of divorces, 1,206. Of the population over fifteen years of age there were in 1900: 1,112,111 males = 503,770 single; 542,119 married; 61,065 widowers; 5,157 divorced; 1.174.893 females=481,499 single; 539,595 married; 144,532 widows; 9,267 divorced.

Switzerland has lost less heavily by emigration than other European countries, the figures for five years being: 1901—3,921; 1902—4,707; 1903—5,817; 1904—4,818; 1905-5,049. In 1905 over 85 per cent, or 4,349 of the total emigrants went to the United States; 554 to different parts of South America. There were 383,424 foreigners resident in 1900.

Switzerland is peculiar in recognizing three languages as official: German, French, and Italian being spoken in the Bundes-Versammlung (q. v. below). German is, however, the principal language, being spoken by 2,312,949, or nearly 70 per cent, in 1900. French was spoken by 730.917: Italian by 221,182; Romanish (in the Grisons), by 38,357

Religion is not required for citizenship, the Constitution of 1874 permitting any or no religious affiliation. No State taxes are levied for any Church; no bishoprics, Roman or other, can be created on Swiss territory without the consent of the Confederate authorities. The Jesuits are debarred, and the foundation of new religious orders and convents is forbidden. The Protestants-chiefly Reformed or Calvinistic-numbered in 1900 about 59 per cent, or 1,916,157; the Roman Catholics about 40 per cent, or 1,379.664. There were 12,264 Jews.

Education is not supervised by any central authority, except that it is compulsory since 1874; it is, however, under the civil authorities. The expenses are borne entirely by the communes in some cases; in others the cantons share them. In Roman Catholic cantons the proportion of school-attending children to the whole population is 1 to 9; in Protestant, 1 to 5; in mixed, I to 7. Some Roman Catholic cantons have never enforced the school laws properly. The age for school attendance is, moreover, shorter in the Catholic cantons. In 1905 there were only 0.09

Education

per cent of the contingent for military service who could not read, and 0.43 per cent who could not write. In 1904 there were 862 infant schools with 44,000 pupils and 822 teachers; 4,665 primary schools with 492,768 pupils and 10,977 teachers; 598 secondary schools with 43,842 pupils and 1,772 teachers; 40 "middle" schools, or Realschulen and Gymnasien with 11,824 pupils and 841 teachers; 65 "normal" or Lehrer-Seminarien with 2,813 pupils; "pensions" or "boarding-schools" for girls, 2,076 pupils. The so-called Fortbildungs Schulen or evening schools number 54,289 pupils. There are besides commercial, technical, and agricultural schools. (See article, EDUCATION.) Six universities-Basel established in 1460, being the oldest-make provision for higher education.

Occupation. Thirty-seven per cent are engaged in agriculture, 41 in industries, and 11 in trade. In 1907 1,067,905 were engaged in farming or allied and dependent occupations; the building trades and furniture manufacture employed 426,401; commerce, hotels, boardinghouses, etc., 285,486; metal works, 275,892; textile industries, 270,114; clothing and dressmaking,

208,757; transportation, 167,278; food supply, etc., 129,797. There were in 1901 6,080 factories with 242,534 employees.

Industries

Industries are chiefly agricultural. The soil is very evenly divided among the population. An estimate places the number of peasant proprietors at 300,000, with about 2,000,000 people. The estates are necessarily small, since 28.4 per cent and of the total area is unproductive. Of the productive area 35.8 per cent are grass land and meadows; 29 per cent forest; 18.7 per cent under fruit; 16.4 per cent under crops and gardens. Notwithstanding the large agricultural population, the bulk of the food crops consumed is imported.

Commerce

The

The peasant proprietors are engaged chiefly in the manufacture of cheese, condensed milk, cream, etc.; 278,432 quintals of cheese and 306,589 quintals of condensed milk were exported in 1905. In the southern cantons viniculture is a thriving industry, 1,267,45 hectoliters of wine being produced in 1904, on 28,831 hectares, to the value of 45,009,470 francs. Live stock in 1903 numbered 161,936 horses, 2,080,297 cattle, 219,438 sheep, 555,261 pigs, and 354,634 goats. Forestry is under federal supervision. law of 1876 placed about 1,119,270 acres, or 55 per cent, of forest land under federal regulations, according to which this area can never be reduced. Trees are carefully replanted-22,704,570 in 1905; timber is cut according to scientific principles 1,839,558 cubic meters in 1905. There are about 163 establishments for pisciculture, the fry going chiefly to hotels. There are 5 salt-mining districts, the output in 1995 being 554,507 quintals; 186 breweries produced 2,264,652 hectoliters of beer. Alcohol manufacture is a federal monopoly, 56,355 quintals of drinkable spirits and 74,264 quintals of methylated spirits for use in the arts being sold in 1905.

Commerce is principally special; the imports (1905). 1,458,321,700 francs; exports, 1,007,822,756. The principal items in the import figures for 1905 were: Foodstuffs, tobacco, spirits, etc.,371,397.433 fr.; silk, 154,339,265; useful metals, 114,432,251; cottons, 97,221,225; mineral substances, 90,933.377. Exports were: silk, 250,728,057 fr.; cottons, 185,840,814; clocks and watches, 132,743.514; foodstuffs, tobacco, spirits, etc., 129,126,944; machinery and carriages, 61,201,625. Imports (1905) were: From Germany, 440.798,593 frs.; France, 274,299, 129; Italy, 176,901,230; Austria-Hungary, 21.524,476; Russia, 77,075.155; Great Britain, 68,803.389. Exports: To Germany, 232,028.577 fr.; Great Britain, 175.193,814; America, 170.439.166; France, 119,600,221; Italy, 56,981,041; Austria-Hungary, 54.369,866. The customs duties on imports and exports were, 1903: 53,361,590 fr.: 1906, 62,156,690.

Switzerland has largely gained in wealth in the last fifty years. Its wealth, excluding State property, is estimated at $3,400,000,000.

II. Constitution and Government

In 1815 the perpetual neutrality of Switzerland and the inviolability of her territory were guaranteed by the Congress of Vienna. The Constitution then adopted has been changed in 1848, and lastly in 1874. It provides for the revision of the Constitution by the ordinary forms of federal legislation, with compulsory referendum; or by direct popular vote on the initiative of 50,000 citizens. The federal government has all the rights, prerogatives, duties, and obligations of a sovereign government, tho the enforcement of law, justice, public works, and education is left to the cantons. There are two federal chambers, the Senate or Ständerat consisting of one to two representatives from each can

Legislature

Switzerland

ton; and a Chamber of Deputies or Nationalrat, consisting of 167 representatives, chosen in direct election, at the rate of one member for every 20,000 of the population. The senators receive their honorarium from the cantons-on an average 20 francs per diem-the deputies from the federal funds at the rate of 20 fr. for each day on which they are actually present, plus traveling expenses. The life of the Chamber expires by limitation; a new election by ballot being required every three years. Citizens of twenty-one years of age may vote; and every voter may be elected a deputy, except clergymen. When the two chambers are in session the assembly is called Bundes-Versammlung, or Federal Assembly. The legislative power rests in either of the two chambers; but the principles of the referendum and initiative are in force. By the initiative (on the demand of 50,000 voters) a popular vote must be taken (the referendum). Legislation, too, by the Assembly may be vetoed by the referendum (on demand of 30,000 voters, or of eight cantons). (See REFERENDUM IN SWITZERLAND.) The principal parties are Right (Roman Catholic), Center (Liberal), Left (Radical), and Socialists. chief executive power rests in the Bundesrat, or Federal Council-a committee of seven, elected for three years by the Federal Assembly. The members of this committee cannot hold any other federal or cantonal office, nor engage in any gainful occupation. They frequently introduce new measures in the Assembly, and take part in its deliberations, but are not allowed to vote. The president and vice-president of this council, elected annually, are the president and vice-president of the confederation. They represent the republic, but have no more power than their confrères. The members of the council form the cabinet of the government. Salaries: The president's salary is 13,500 fr.

The

The local government varies greatly in the different cantons, each being supreme in matters not delegated to the federal authorities.

Finances.-The federal government has no power to levy taxes directly. Its principal revenue comes from the customs, the alcohol monopoly, and the postal, telegraph, and railroad services. Even part of this revenue is paid back to the cantons. Of the revenue from the alcohol monopoly, each canton must use one tenth for combating alcoholism within its own territory. Several federal manufactories yield part of the revenue; also the tax for exemption from military service. This is levied by the cantons, and divided equally between them and the confederation. The Constitution provides, however, that the federal government may, in extraordinary cases, levy a rate upon the various cantons according to a settled scale. The total revenue in 1901 was: 101,924,682 francs; 1905, 129,303,264. Expenditure: 105,533,089 fr. and 116,716,180, respectively.

Railways, Posts, and Telegraphs

The principal item of expenditure without any returns was for military purposes; in 1907 it was estimated at 39,562,156 fr. Internal communication is good. There were (1905) 2,936 miles of railroads 1,470 belonging to main lines, 1,423 to secondary and tramways, 43 to foreign. The federal government owned 1,516 miles. The receipts on the latter amounted to 120,677,369 fr.; working expenses to 80,156,945; surplus, 40,520,424. There were in

Tailoring Trades

all 5,620 miles of telegraph lines with 27,597 miles of wire. The State owned about half of them. The receipts on the latter were 11,033,151 fr.; expenses, 10,877,151; surplus, 426,000. There were in the same year 1,677 post-offices. Receipts, 44,549,955 fr.; expenditure, 40,053,837; surplus, 4,496,118.

The army of Switzerland is essentially a militia. Military service is compulsory, nominally from 17 to 50 years; practically from 20 to 32. About 143,000 men are eligible to a call to arms in case of need.

III. Social Reform

Switzerland, in many ways, tho by no means in all, leads the nations in social reform. In no country are democratic political institutions so fully developed; perhaps in no country is there so much industrial democracy.

Political Reforms

The Swiss referendum comes down from the old landsgemeinden of ancient times and was used almost in its modern form in Bern and Zurich as early as the fifteenth century. The compulsory referendum and the initiative were adopted in some of the cantons in 1868. The federal referendum was established in 1874 and the federal initiative, 1891. Proportional representation was adopted at Ticino in 1892, and has been adopted now by most of the cantons (see DIRECT LEGISLATION; REFERENDUM AND INITIATIVE; PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION). Another important and unique political institution in Switzerland is her political recognition of organized labor. In 1887 the office of Workman's Secretary was founded, its incumbent to be practically a member of the federal cabinet, and to be paid by the government, but to be elected by the Swiss labor-unions, thus to some extent making them a recognized part of political Swiss institutions. A Working Men's Federation has been formed, composed of one delegate from each labor organization which has 250 members. This Federation elects the Workman's Secretary (for many years Herman Greulich). It has also a congress (Arbeitertag), which meets triennially, a council (Bundesvorstand), and an executive (Ausschuss).

Municipalism

Swiss municipal institutions are, however, equally progressive with national institutions. Cities like Zurich and Basel in German, and Geneva in French, Switzerland, are among the most progressive municipalities in the world. They care minutely for the housing of the working classes; they strive to give work to the unemployed; they have municipalized most of the natural monopolies-they thus receive large municipal revenues with low rates of taxation; among other things they have developed industrial schools of the world. Geneva had an École de dessin as early as 1751 and Basel a public school for drawing in 1762. Other cities followed, Bern in 1766. In 1848 the confederation founded a university and polytechnic school (1905, 1,293 pupils) at Zurich (opened 1855). In 1884 the federal government commenced subsidizing local schools, with the result that Switzerland has, for her size, probably the best industrial schools in the world.

Switzerland has also done pioneer work in institutions for the insurance of the unemployed, ho thus far without large success. Bern estab

lished a plan of voluntary insurance under municipal auspices in 1895, after some preliminary efforts by local labor organizations. The benefit granted, however, to the unemployed was very little and few workmen have availed themselves of it-only about 600 in recent years, mainly in the building trades. St. Gall, in 1895, tried a somewhat similar plan, but made insurance in it compulsory upon working men. It, however, was never popular and was given up in 1897. In 1901 Basel (having voted against a municipal plan) commenced subsidizing a workmen's unemployment fund which was started, and this has endured, but without large results, and losing in membership of late years.

Philanthropies

Much more successful have been the Swiss municipal or cantonal employment bureaus, founded on the German method, St. Gall in 1887, Bern in 1888, Basel in 1889, and other cities later. (See PUBLIC EMPLOYMENT BUREAUS.) In 1905 they placed 44,243 persons out of 59.355 who sought work. Connected with these are the relief stations for workmen traveling in search of work, also on the German plan (see RELIEF STATIONS). They cover many of the cantons with a network. There are besides numerous municipal or private philanthropic institutions, all largely subsidized by the State. Examples are the Old People's Refuge at Bern, the Municipal Orphanage at Zurich, the Municipal Workshop (Armenanstalt) at Bern, and labor colonies at Tannenhof and Herdern. The Tannenhof colony was founded in 1889; that at Herdern in 1895; neither have had large success. They attract but a low class of laborers, having from twenty to fifty inmates usually, and cannot show large results with these. For pauper children Swiss cities do better, mainly on the boardingout plan. Peculiar to Switzerland are the societies for public utility. This is the name by which Mr. W. H. Dawson (see his "Social Switzerland") translates Gemeinnützige Gesellschaften. They are of long standing, in Bern since 1759 and Basel since 1777. They are in a way agencies for various measures, charitable and educational. They maintain gymnasiums, baths, schools, classes, etc., afford relief, and do not a little in developing model dwellings. In this line, however, the municipalities do more, notably Bern, at Wylerfeld (a municipal industrial colony). The Messrs. Suchard (chocolate manufacturers) have a private "model village" at Neuchâtel, as have Reiter & Co. at Töss. Courts of arbitration and boards of conciliation, with conseils de prudhommes at Geneva, are other measures developed in Switzerland between capital and labor.

Cooperation and Trade-Unions

Cooperation began early in Switzerland, and has had considerable development. Distributive societies were the first started. The consumvereine of Zurich date from 1858. There were, in 1903, some 1,800 cooperative agricultural societies and 1,200 productive societies. Including the cooperative banks there were some 4,400 cooperative societies in all. The Genossenschaftliche Volksblatt has some 100,ooo readers. Trade-unions have also reached considerable development. The Schweizerische Gewerkschaftbund has about 50,000 members; 30,000 organized in the railroads and transportation are not affiliated with this. There are 24 trade-union journals and 26 workman's secretaries of various organizations. Nevertheless, it is said

that the unions still reach only 12 per cent of labor.

The fact is that Switzerland, where land is widely distributed and even factory workers have small allotments, on which they work a portion of the time, has not developed the class consciousness of many more purely industrial countries. Switzerland has few very wealthy or very poor and has therefore considerable middle-class conservatism and individualism even among her working classes. This, coupled with the fact that the federation, the cantons, and municipalities have largely worked on lines of public ownership and operation, is probably the reason why organized political socialism has not found large expression in Switzerland. The Grültiverein (organized in 1838 in Geneva) is by far the oldest distinctively labor organization in Switzerland; tho_to-day mainly political and connected with the Socialist Party, it was long educational and general. By 1845 it had largely spread through the country. 1848, however, it had become markedly radical and was supprest in many cantons, including Bern. It, however, did large preliminary work for socialism. In 1864 a branch of the International was founded in Geneva, and by 1869 thirty-two branches were said to exist in Geneva alone. But the movement did not endure. (See INTERNATIONAL.) It was largely a foreign importation.

Socialism

By

Switzerland has long been the asylum of political refugees from other lands. Thus Geneva has been the shelter from which at one time Mazzini tried to rouse a Young Europe, which Bakounin sought to make the center of anarchism, and from whence Russian nihilists have tried to reach Russia. But these movements have little affected Switzerland. Driven from Germany by the anti-Socialist law, many German Socialists found refuge in Basel, and somewhat developed German socialism in Switzerland, yet after all not at all commensurably with the Swiss development of unconscious socialism.

Yet in 1873 a People's Association (Volksverein) was formed, and also a Worker's Federation (Arbeiterbund), both national and both affiliated with the Grültiverein, and in 1877 adopted the program of Marxist socialism. In 1888 the present Swiss Social Democratic Party was formed. In this the Grültiverein is now largely merged, its secretary, since 1904, being the secretary of the

Tailoring Trades

party, tho the association still keeps up its organization and celebrates its seventieth anniversary in 1908. The party now claims 20,337 paying members, a number which of recent years has declined rather than grown; it cast some 70,000 votes, and it has at present only two representatives in the Nationalsrath, tho it claims to have elected six members, and that four were unjustly unseated through technicalities. In many of the municipal councils of the larger cities the party, however, has numerous representatives. Switzerland, however, has many socialistic features, nationalized telegraph, telephone, postal savings-banks, and railroads (voted in 1898 and now being rapidly accomplished). There is also a federal alcohol monopoly.

The Federation of Switzerland, 1886-87, undertook to restrict and control the distilled liquor traffic. It bought the distilleries and required a fee on importers. The minor distilleries were destroyed, 60 or 70 being left. One tenth of the value of the product is devoted to hospitals for inebriates and other institutions. This tenth in 1902 was 581,859 fr. Most of this was spent on prisons, asylums, and neglected children; only 100,000 on inebriate asylums and temperance work. Swiss authorities differ on the result. Some say a "beer plague" has been substituted for a "whisky plague. The strict abstinence movement is growing, there being 350 societies, with 8,500 members and 5,900 associates.

REFERENCES: Annuaire Statistique de la Suisse, Bern; Handworterbuch der Schweizerischen Volkswirtschaft, Social politik und Verwaltung: Social Switzerland, by W. S. Dawson, 1897; Rise of the Swiss Republic, by W. D. McCracken, 1892.

Addresses of important reform societies in Switzerland:

International Labor Office (International Association for Labor Legislation), 1901. Chief Secretary, Dr. Stephen Bauer, Rebgasse 1 Clarahof, Basel, Switzerland.

Arbeiterbildungsverein. Zurich.

Arbeiterbund. (Schweizerischer.) Arbeitersekretär, Hermann Greulich. Zurich.

Arbeiterinnenvereine. Secretary, Verena Conzett. Zurich. Eidgenössisches statistiches Bureau. Bern. Katholische Männer und Arbeitervereine. sekretär, Dr. A. Hättenschwiller. Lucern.

Verbands

Le Peuple. (Socialist.) 27 Coulouvreniere St., Geneva. Verband Schweizerischer Konsumvereine. Basel. Bundeskomite des Schweizerischen Gewerkschaftsbundes,

Zurich.

Zentralkomite des Schweizerischen Grütlivereins, Zurich. Bureau Internationale de la Paix, Kanonenweg 12 Bern. Fédération Internationale pour l'observation du Dimanche. Sec., M. Deluz, Geneva.

TAFF VALE RAILWAY CASE: A suit brought in England in which the Taff Vale Railway Company was given £23,000 damages against the Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants for persuading and intimidating workmen to break their contracts with the railway, and aiding and abetting acts of violence which together injured the railway company in the amount named. The corporation sued the members of the tradeunion individually, and then, under a rule of the court, joined the organization itself. The decision went in favor of the corporation. On appeal it went against the corporation. It was then carried to the highest court in England, the House of Lords, and the latter held that the members of the association individually and the

T

association itself were liable. The decision created considerable discussion especially in labor circles, where it had been commonly held that trade-unions could not be sued. It has led to constant agitation since in England for a change of law, making the trade-unions not liable with their funds, and it was this decision (see TRADEUNIONS IN GREAT BRITAIN) which largely led the British trade-unionists into independent political action in the parliamentary elections of 1906.

TAILORING TRADES: The tailoring trade is par excellence the trade of the sweat-shop. But for this, see SWEAT-SHOPS. Slowly, however, the trade is being driven from the sweat-shop and organization of the workers is being effected.