together with the ceiling, at which it is considered the embassy arrived at Ispahan, then the capital of disrespectful to look, are covered with handsome red Persia. The information which Kaempfer collected damask, flowered over with gold, and tucked up during his travels and his residence in Persia is about six feet high, so as to be removed from pil- embodied in his 'Amanitates Exotica.' When the grims' hands. The ceiling is upheld by three cross-embassy returned to Europe in 1685, Kaempfer beams, whose shapes appear under the arras; they entered as surgeon into the service of the Dutch East rest upon the eastern and western walls, and are India Company, served in the Persian Gulf, and, sailsupported in the centre by three columns, about ing from Bender Abbassi, in 1689, for Batavia, visited twenty inches in diameter, covered with carved and most of the countries on the western shores of Hinornamented aloe wood. At the Freki corner there dustan. At Batavia he occupied himself chiefly with is a dwarf door, called Bab el Taubah (of repent-the natural history of the island of Java. In 1690 ance'), leading into a narrow passage built for the he went from Batavia to Japan, as physician to staircase by which the servants ascend to the roof: the embassy which the Dutch East India Company it is never opened except for working purposes. The annually sent to the Japanese court. He remained Aswad (propitious') corner is occupied by a flat- at Nagasaki, in Japan, from September, 1690, to topped and quadrant-shaped press or safe, in which November, 1692, and during this time he accomat times is placed the key of the Kaabah. Both door panied two embassies to Yeddo. His observations on and safe are of aloe wood. Between the columns, Siam and Japan are given in his great work entitled and about nine feet from the ground, run bars of a 'The History of Japan,' the original of which has metal which I could not distinguish, and hanging to never been published; but a translation was made them were many lamps said to be of gold. This from a copy in the possession of Sir Hans Sloane completes the upholding work of the hall.' by J. G. Scheuchzer, and published in England in 2 vols. folio, 1727. Kaempfer returned from Japan to Batavia, which he left in 1693 for Amsterdam. In April, 1694, he took the degree of doctor of physic at the University of Leyden. On his return to his native place, he was appointed physician to his sovereign. He died November 2, 1716.

The Kaabah is supposed to have been built and rebuilt ten times:-1. By angels, in obedience to the commands of Allah; 2. by Adam; 3. by Seth; 4. by Abraham and Ishmael; 5. by the Amalikah, descended from the great grandson of Ham, son of Noah; 6. By the Beni Turham, the children of Kahtan, fifth descendant from Noah; 7. By Kusay bin Kilab, governor of Mecca, and fifth forefather of the Prophet; 8. By certain Arab tribes, under the direction of Mohammed; 9. by Abdullah bin Zubayr, nephew of Ayesha, the wife of the Prophet, in A.H. 64; 10. by Hajjaj bin Yusuf, at the orders of Abd el Malik, in A.H. 74. Since then it has been frequently repaired, especially by the Abassides and by the Sultan Murad Khan.

Many wonderful and miraculous legends are related in connection with this building. It is said that ravenous beasts will not approach it; nor will birds perch upon the house, except to be cured of sickness, for fear of defiling the roof. Though small, it will contain any number of devotees; and invalids recover health by rubbing themselves against the Kiswah and the Black Stone. A hundred thousand mercies descend upon it daily; and from whatever corner of it rain comes up, there is plenty in the lands that lie in that direction. (Burton, iii. 196.) But towards the end of time an Abyssinian host is prophesied to destroy it; though ages must elapse before that fatal event will take place.

KABOOL. [AFGHANISTAN.]

KÆMPFE'RIA, a small genus of Indian Scitamineæ, or Zingiberacea of some authors, of which the species are indigenous to the islands of the Archipelago and the southern parts of the continent of India, as Bengal and the districts on its eastern frontier.

KAFFA, called also Feodosia, is a town built on the south-eastern shores of the Crimea, in 45° 6' N. lat. and 35° 20' E. long., on a wide open bay, which is more than twenty miles across. The town stands on the most western angle of this bay, and its harbour is protected by a projecting cape. In ancient times it was called Theodosia, and was included in the Greek kingdom of the Bosporus. Acccording to the author of the Periplus of the Euxine,' it was a Milesian colony.

In 1474 Kaffa was taken from the Genoese by the Turks, but still continued a considerable place, though its population had decreased from 80,000, which it had when the commerce of the Genoese was most flourishing, to 20,000 individuals. The wars which the Russians, in the latter half of the last century, carried on in these parts, ruined Kaffa, and still more the emigrations which took place when the Russians got possession of it in 1782. Towards the end of the last century Pallas describes it as a heap of ruins, inclosed by strong and lofty walls, which were forti fied by towers, at the distance of 20, 40, and 60 fathoms from each other. In this ruined state the town remained up to the year 1806, when Russia declared it a free harbour. Fishing is the principal KAEMPFER, ENGELBRECHT, was born Sep-occupation of the inhabitants, who numbered, accordtember 16, 1651, at Lemgo, in Westphalia. He passed through several schools, and finally studied medicine and natural science at the University of Cracow for three years, and at Königsberg for four years more. From Prussia he went to Sweden, where he solicited and obtained the place of secretary to an embassy which was then going to Persia. In 1684

KABOOL, or CABOOL, a river in Afghanistan, which rises in the Oonna mountains, about lat. 34° 20' N., and falls into the Indus, near Attock, after a course of about 340 miles. It is the only great affluent which the Indus receives from the W., and dows with extraordinary rapidity. KABYLES. [ALGIERS.]

ing to the last return, 8435. Grain and wool are the principal articles exported. The town contains many memorials of its former greatness.

KAFFA, a country in Eastern Africa, south of Abyssinia. The capital is Soonee, containing, according to the accounts of travellers, between 6000 and 7000 inhabitants. who call themselves Christians.

KAFFRARIA. [CAFFRARIA.] KAFIRISTAN. [CAFFRISTAN.] KAGOSIMA, a town of Japan, in a deep bay at the south end of the island Kiusiu. It was bombarded by a British squadron on the 15th August, 1863, when it was burned, and its forts silenced, as a punishment for the murder of the British resident. KAHIRA, or CAIRO, more properly Al-Kahira, which was its former name, but now called by the natives Musr, 'the victorious,' the capital of modern Egypt, is situated in 30° 2' N. lat., and 31° 15' E. long., between the eastern bank of the Nile and the ridge of Mokattam, and near the apex of the Delta of the Nile. Cairo occupies about three square miles. It is surrounded by a wall, the gates of which are shut at night, and is commanded by a large citadel situated at an angle of the town, on one of the lower elevations of the contiguous ridge, in which is the residence of the Pasha.

The open spaces in the city are few, and the greater number of the streets are so narrow that two laden camels can scarcely pass abreast, and in many there is hardly room for one. This arrangement excludes, as it was intended, the rays of the sun, and places the thoroughfares in shadow. In the cool of the evening the crowd is incessant, the variety of costumes striking, and the street cries are deafening and discordant.

reign of the Arabs, and the ancient sultans of Egypt. Among them are about 400 mosques, with pictu resque minarets, several of the ancient gates, an aqueduct for conveying water from the Nile to the citadel, the ancient works of the citadel itself, and the palace and well of Joseph. At Old Cairo are the seven towers, still called the Granary of Joseph, and serving their ancient purpose. In the island of Rhoda is the celebrated Nilometer, a graduated column for indicating the height of the water during the annual inundation of the river; on the south of the city, outside the walls, are the tombs of the Mamelukes, who were inveigled into the city by Mehemet Ali and indiscriminately massacred; and on the north-east the celebrated obelisk of Heliopolis, which is the oldest in the world, having been erected about a century before the arrival of Joseph in Egypt. Cairo is traversed by a canal for irrigation, which commences at Old Cairo. There is a branch railway of one mile to Boulak, the port of the city, and telegraphic lines connect it with Alexandria Suez, and Damietta.

Cairo was long the chief entrepôt for the commerce of Egypt, and its trade greatly increased after the opening of the railway to Alexandria and Suez. The bazaars are well supplied with goods of every description, and thronged with crowds of visitors of all nations: caravans arrive annually In the neighbourhood of Cairo are Schoobra, with from Mourzook, Sennaar, and Darfur. There are a country-house and fine gardens of the pasha; four primary government schools, excellent schools Aboo Zabel, where are a school of medicine, anatomy, conducted by the American missionaries, who also and surgery, and a large military hospital, all created preach in Arabic, a museum of Egyptian antiquiby Mehemet Ali. Nearly opposite Cairo, on the left ties, a magnetic observatory, hospitals, and a lunatic Dank of the Nile, are the great pyramids of Ghizeh. asylum. An elegant Gothic church for the English Cairo still maintains the reputation of being the Protestant residents was opened in Cairo in 1876. best school of Arabic literature; and for Moham-Two newspapers are published here-one in Turkish, medan theology and jurisprudence the fame of its professors remains unrivalled. There is a newlyrounded museum for the collection of Egyptian antiquities.

The city of Cairo is the seat of government, and the residence of the viceroy, being also on the railroad from Alexandria to Suez. The population, including the suburbs of Boulak and Fostat, or Old Cairo, is estimated at 254,000, comprising Mohammedans, Copts, Jews, and numerous foreigners. The climate is healthy, and varies little, the mean temperature in the winter being 58° 5', and in summer, 85° 1' Fahrenheit. Rain falls ten or twelve times a year, but only lasts for one or two hours.

Beside the viceroy's palace, the citadel contains the arsenal, mint, public offices, and the magnificent new mosque of Mehemet Ali. The citadel itself is commanded by forts placed on the extremity of the chain of Mokattam, on the slopes of which Cairo is built.

and the other in Arabic.

Cairo was founded by the Arabs in 970; its citadel was built by Saladin in 1176; and it was the capital of the sultans of Egypt till the time of the Turkish conquest in 1507; since which it has been the residence of the pashas, governors of the province. It was taken by the French in 1798, and held by them for three and a half years.

(Martineau, Experiences of Eastern Life; A. W. Kinglake, Eothen; Bartlett, The Nile Boat; Malte Brun, Géographie Universelle, &c.)

plain

KAISARIYEH, or CÆSAREA, one of the most important cities in Asia Minor, situated in a to the north of the Erjish Dagh, in about 38° 41' N. lat., 35° 25′ E. long., has a population variously estimated at from 25,000 to 50,000, consisting of Greeks, Turks, and Armenians. The streets are narrow and dirty, and the squares and market-places also abound with filth, and the naturally healthy climate is poisoned by the absence of all sanatory A series of gardens and plantations separate the arrangements. The inhabitants are noted for their city proper from its suburbs-Boulac and Misr-el- commercial enterprise, and the town is the entrepôt Aatik. Cairo is divided into several distinct quarters, for a large extent of country. The bazaars are well according to the religion and race of its inhabitants, supplied with European manufactured goods. The is the Coptic quarter, the Jews' quarter, and the Armenians have a bishop and two churches, and the Frank or foreigners' quarter-all of which are sepa- Greeks also have a church. Kaisariyeh is identical rated by gates. Shepherd's Hotel, a large and well-with the ancient Cæsarea, the capital of Cappaconducted establishment, is the great resort of the English.

The edifices of Cairo comprise many of the finest remains of Arabian architecture, all dating from the

docia, originally called Mazaca, which name was changed to that of Cæsarea when Cappadocia became a Roman province.

KALE, the name given (1) to a species of cabbage.

the Brassica oleracea of botanists. This is the vegetable known to the kitchen gardener as Greens. It does not run to a heart, like the common cabbage, but is marked by the open head of its dark green or purplish-coloured leaves. The variety termed German greens is much used as a winter vegetable. From the close clustering form of the edges of its leaves it is sometimes named Curly Greens. (2) Kale, with a prefix, as Sea-kale (Crambe maritima), is another plant much used for the table. It is a native of the south of Europe, but is now extensively cultivated in Britain.

KALEIDOSCOPE, a name compounded of three Greek words (kalos, eidos, and skopos), and denoting the exhibition of beautiful forms, is the designation of an optical instrument which was invented by Sir David Brewster, and made public in 1817.

The essential parts of the instrument consist of two plane mirrors of glass, having their posterior surfaces blackened in order to prevent any reflection of light from thence. Each mirror is from six to ten inches long, and of a trapezoidal form; the larger end about an inch and a half wide, and the shorter end about three-quarters of an inch; and the two are placed in contact with one another at the wide end of each, so as to form a dihedral angle, the like ends being placed together. The object to be viewed is disposed contiguously to the larger ends, and the eye should be near the opposite extremity, but a little above the line of contact. The effects produced by the reflections of the light may be understood from the following explanations:

to the eye and cause the perception of the sector a' Cb". In a similar manner the rays first reflected from B C a will, by subsequent reflections, give rise to the perceptions of the sectors b C a', b' C a".

Thus it is easy to perceive that an object, as M, on A C, with its immediately reflected image M', will give rise to the appearances of similar figures at m m', m' m""; and an object, as N, on A B, with its immediately reflected image N', will give rise to the appearances of similar figures at n n', n" n"": also an object, as P, between A C and B C, will appear by reflection similarly situated in all the other sectors.

Sir David Brewster found means to obtain multiplied images of such objects as flowers, trees, and even persons or things in motion: and thus the importance of the instrument was greatly increased. Some kaleidoscopes have been executed in such a manner that the two mirrors may be placed at any required angle with one another; by which means the images in the visible field of view may be varied at pleasure. The instrument is capable also of being constructed so that the multiplied image may be projected on a screen, and thus made visible at one time to many spectators. Again, Dr. Roge has shown ('Annals of Philosophy ') that the properties of the instrument may be greatly extended by employing, instead of two, three and even four plane mirrors, united together at their edges so as to form a hollow prism, or a frustum of a pyramid, the reflecting surfaces being towards the interior. These are called polycentral kaleidoscopes.

Sir David Brewster's account of his invention is contained in his Treatise on the Kaleidoscope,' Edinburgh, 1819, of which a new edition was published in 1860. The instrument is very useful to pattern-drawers and others, as it supplies them with an almost endless variety of suggestions.

KALENDAR, or CALENDAR, a register or distribution of the year, accommodated to the uses of life, containing the order of days, weeks, months, festivals, &c., as they occur in the course of the year. It is so called from the kalendæ, or kalends, which among the Romans denoted the first day of every month. The kalendar being of civil institution, varies according to the different distributions of time in different countries. Those which we shall take more particular notice of are the Roman, the Julian, the Gregorian, and the Reformed Kalendars: a slight mention of the others will be sufficient.

Let A C, B C, be the two extremities of the mirrors on the side farthest from the eye of the observer. These lines, and the sectoral space between them, will be visible by rays coming directly to the eye; and, at the same time, rays from the line A C fall- Romulus, according to tradition, formed what is ing at a certain angle of incidence on the mirror deemed the original Roman kalendar, by which the which passes through B C will, on being reflected year was divided into ten months only, consisting of from thence to the eye, give rise to the image C a an unequal number of days, and began with March. of that line; in like manner rays from the line B C The total number of days was 304. It was, howfalling at an equal angle of incidence on the mirror ever, soon discovered that the civil year, as thus passing through A C will, after reflection, give rise to constituted, was much shorter than the solar year. the image Cb of the line. These, with the interme- Romulus therefore added two intercalary months to diate rays, produce the first reflected sectors B C a every year; but these months were not inserted in and AC b. Other rays from the sector A Cb at the kalendar, nor were any names assigned to them the surface of the mirror A C will fall on the mirror until the following reign. Some Roman antiquaries BC; and while a portion of them arrive at such maintained that the old kalendar continued in use angles of incidence as to be reflected to the eye and till the time of Tarquinius Priscus. produce the perception of the sector a Cb', another Numa, in imitation of the Greeks, divided the portion of them will be reflected back to the mirror year into twelve months, according to the course of AC at such angles of incidence as to be re-reflected the moon, consisting in all of 354 days: according

to Pliny ('Hist. Nat.,' xxxiv. 7), he afterwards added | Statute 24 Geo. II. c. 23.) By this statute the one day more to make the number odd, which was whole Gregorian kalendar was adopted. thought a more fortunate number. But as ten days, five hours, forty-nine minutes were wanting to make the lunar year correspond to the course of the sun, he intercalated every other year an extraordinary month, called Mensis Intercalaris, or Mercedonicus, between the 23rd and 24th of February. This month appears to have consisted alternately of twenty-two and twenty-three days during periods of twenty-two years, the last biennium in the twenty-two years being entirely passed over.

Of the three parts into which the Romans divided their month, the kalendæ, or kalends, are noticed at the commencement of this article. They were so called (à calando vel vocando) from the pontifex calling out to the people that it was new moon. The fifth day of the month was called Nonæ, the nones, and the thirteenth, Idus, the ides, from the verb iduare, to divide; because the ides nearly divided the month. The nones, from nonus, the ninth, were so called because, counting inclusively, they were nine days from the ides. In March, May, July, and October, the nones fell on the 7th, and the ides on the 15th of the month. The mode of fixing any particular day was by saying that it was so many days before the kalends, nones, or ides, next immediately following. Thus the 28th of April was the fourth day before the kalends of March; the 4th of March was the fourth day before the nones of March; and the ninth of March was the seventh

Julius Cæsar, when he had made himself master of the state, resolved to put an end to this disorder, by abolishing the use of the intercalations, and for that purpose, B.C. 47, adjusted the year according to the course of the sun, and assigned to the months the number of days which they still contain. He also added an intercalary day to February every four years. To make everything proceed regularly, from the 1st of the ensuing January, he inserted in the current year, besides the intercalary month of twenty-day before the ides of March. three days, which fell into it, two extraordinary months between November and December, the one of thirty-three, the other of thirty-four days; so that this year, which was called the last year of confusion, consisted of fifteen months, or 445 days. These sixty-seven days were inserted in order to set the year right, which was sixty-seven days in advance of the true time.

The Attic year consisted of twelve lunar months of 30 and 29 days alternately; an intercalary month of 29 or 30 days was inserted every two years; but as this was 7 days too much, the intercalary month was sometimes omitted. The full Attic month consisted of 30 days, and was divided into three decades.

KALENDAR, REVOLUTIONARY. A Report was made to the National Convention, 6th October, 1793, on the new Kalendar by Fabre d'Eglantine; and a decree was passed on 4 Frimaire (24th Novem

All this was effected by the care and skill of Sosigenes, an astronomer of Alexandria, whom Cæsar had brought to Rome for that purpose; and a new kalendar was formed from his arrangement by Fla-ber, 1793) for the establishment of the new Kalendar. vius, digested according to the order of the Roman festivals, and the old manner of computing the days by kalends, nones, and ides, which was published and authorized by the dictator's edict.

The Committee of Public Instruction was commissioned to cause the new Kalendar to be printed in various forms, with plain instructions for its use. The instructions (Instruction sur l'Ère de la République,' &c.) were drawn up by Romme. The Republican Kalendar is explained in a French work, in its sixth edition: Concordance des Calendriers Républicain et Grégorien,' Paris (6me édition), 1812, 8vo.

This is the Julian or Solar year, which continues in use to this day in all Christian countries, without any other variation than that of the old and new style, which was occasioned by a regulation of Pope Gregory XIII., in 1582, who, observing that the The year was to begin at the midnight of Paris vernal equinox, which at the time of the council of Observatory which precedes the true autumnal equiNice, in 325, had been on the 21st of March, then nox. It was to consist of 365 days, with 12 months happened on the 10th, by the advice of astronomers of 30 days each (the 30 days being three decades caused ten days to be thrown out of the current of 10 days each), and 5 complementary days, which year, between the 4th and 15th of October; and to were called sansculotides (a name afterwards repealed). make the civil year for the future to agree with the A sixth complementary day was to be added, accordreal one, or with the annual revolution of the earthing to the words of the decree, selon que la position round the sun, or, as it was then expressed, with the de l'équinoxe le comporte;' which adds, 'the period annual motion of the sun in the ecliptic, which is of four years, at the end of which this addition of a completed in the 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes, day is ordinarily necessary, is called the Franciade,' he ordained that every 100th year should not be (Art. 10 of the Decree; and the remarks of Romme leap year, excepting the 400th. in the Instruction,' &c., s. iii., 'De la Longueur de l'Année). The first year of the French Republic began at midnight, the 22nd September, 1792. The second year began on the 22nd, 1793, at midnight (Art. 5 & 6 of the Decree). The Gregorian reckoning was restored from and after January 1, 1806, by an imperial ordonnance, dated 22 Fructidor, An XIII. (September 9, 1805).

This alteration of the style was immediately adopted in all Catholic countries; but not in Great Britain till the year 1752, when eleven days were dropped between the 2nd and 14th of September, so that this month contained only nineteen days; and thenceforth the new or reformed style was adopted, as it had been before in the other countries of Europe. The same year also another alteration was made in England, by which the legal year, which before had begun on the 25th of March, began upon the 1st of January; this alteration first took place on the 1st of January, 1752. (See the

Though every period of four years was a Franciade, and the last year of the Franciade was called Sextile (having six complementary days), yet in fact An IV., An VIII., &c., are not leap years. The following list is actually made from the work above mentioned :—

21, 22, 23. 21, 22, 23. 20, 21, 22. 19, 20, 21. 21, 22, 23. 20, 21, 22. 20, 21, 22. 19, 20, 21. 19, 20, 21. is Aug. 18, 19, 20.

But when the Gregorian year is leap year, the beginnings of the months are as follows, according as the republican year begins on September 22, 23, or 24:

1 Vendémiaire is Sept. 1 Brumaire

is Oct.

1 Frimaire

is Nov.

1 Nivose

1 Pluviose
1 Ventose
1 Germinal
1 Floréal

is Dec.
is Jan.
is Feb.
is March

1 Prairial

1 Messidor
1 Thermidor

1 Fructidor

is April is May is June is July

22, 23, 24.
22, 23, 24.
21, 22, 23.
21, 22, 23.
20, 21, 22.
19, 20, 21.
20, 21, 22.
19, 20, 21.
19, 20, 21.
18, 19, 20.
18, 19, 20.
17, 18, 19.

summer by traders from the mainland, who procure here large quantities of skins, eggs, and feathers.

KALHARI, or KALIHARI DESERT, is a vast tract of southern Africa, between lat. 20° 30' and 28 S.; long. 18° 30′ and 26° E. It is partly inhabited by the Bosjesmans, whose hair grows like short thick bristles-a peculiarity which is considered to mark the greatest specific difference between any of the races of mankind. Rain rarely falls in this district, and no water is to be had except at a few springs or sucking places,' which the miserable natives who wander over it in search of game carefully conceal. Little of the interior is known, but its eastern side has been skirted by Dr. Livingstone. In many places it is well wooded, and largely covered with thorn trees.

remain after the combustion of vegetable substances. KALI, an Arabic word, signifying the ashes which Hence the word alkali.

KALISZ, Province. [POLAND.]

KALMIA, a genus of plants belonging to the natural order Iricaceae. K. latifolia is a native of N. America from Canada to North Carolina, on the sides of stony hills. The leaves and flowers of this genus are poisonous, and the honey of bees which collect the juice is injurious. K. angustifolia, Haulmleaved Kalmia, is a native of North America from Canada to the Carolinas, in bogs and swamps, and sometimes in dry mountain lands. It is a shrub one or eight feet in height, with dark red flowers. It is called Sheep-laurel in North America, because it is supposed to be very injurious to sheep; and the partridge is said to become poisonous as food after feeding on it.

KALMUCKS. [MONGOLIA.]
KALONG. [CHEIROPTERA.]

KALU'GA, a government of European Russia, lying between 53° 24′ and 55° 21′ N. lat., 33° 20' and 37° E. long., is bounded W. and N.W. by Smolensk, N.E. by Moscow, E. by Tula, and S. by Orel. The area measures 11,022 square miles; and the population at the last census was 1,007,471. The surface is level, but here and there broken by a low hill or the wooded banks of the numerous rivers that flow through it. Forests cover about half the arca, the arable lands about one-third. The soil for the most part is sandy clay. The Oka and its numerous feeders are the principal rivers. There are lakes and marshes in the centre and west of the For instance, what is 14 Floréal, An XII.? The government. The rivers, several of which are navi republican year begins September 24, 1803, so Floréal gable for barges, or available for floating timber, are falls in 1804, which is Gregorian leap year. Look frozen from November to March. The soil of Kalugs at the third Table; and when the year begins Sep-being generally poor requires abundance of manure: tember 24, the first of Floréal is April 21: conse- the chief products are rye, oats, barley, wheat, hemp, quently the 14th is May 4, 1804. lint, and flax. Barely enough for the consumption KALGUEV, or KOLGUEV, is a considerable is produced. Horned cattle are scarce, but the horses island in the Arctic Ocean, in the Russian govern- are excellent. Horticulture is carefully attended to.

is Aug.

ment of Archangel, and situated to the north of the The mineral products are bog iron, mill-stones, lime, peninsula of Schemonkonski. It lies between 68°gypsum, and turf. There are several great iron and 69° 40′ N. lat., and 47° 30′ and 48° 10′ E. forges. The manufactures comprise metallic goods long., and is about 66 miles in diameter. The sur- and cutlery, cotton, leather, beet-root sugar, soap, face is undulating; it has some low mountains, which rise in the centre, two small rivers, and several brooks of fresh water. The cliffs are covered with an incredible number of sea-birds; the interior is full of polar bears, foxes, &c. Except a few Samoiedes there are no settled inhabitants. It is resorted to every

and distilling. The commerce is principally with Archangel. Oil and spirits are exported. Sail-cloth is made both for the European and American market, and coloured cloths for the China trade. Kaluga, the capital of the government, is situated in 54° 30' N. lat., and 36° 5' E. long., on the Oka, and has 32,335