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original sources, and given a statement of what he regards as the religion of the ancient Egyptians. In speaking of the literature of the subject the author justly calls attention to the great superiority of the studies of Maspero, and to his essay "La Mythologie Egyptienne," in Rev. de l'hist. des rel., 1889, which reviews the work of Brugsch.

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Kurzgefasste Logik und Psychologie, von Dr. K. Kroman, ord. Professor der Philosophie an der Universität zu Kopenhagen. Nach der zweiten Auflage des Originals unter Mitwirkung des Verfassers ins Deutsch übersetzt von F. Bendixen. Pp. xii, 389. Verlag von O. R. Reisland in Leipzig. Mrk. 5. Few manuals on this subject are so clearly and concisely written. Perhaps this merit belongs as much to the translator as to the author. The work may be considered as a companion, if not as an offspring, of Dr. Kroman's larger volume, "Unsere Naturerkenntnis," which has received a very favorable reception in Germany. The book renders two distinct services: first, it lays down the foundation principles in such a way as to be intelligible to the ordinary student, and to introduce him to the more practical departments of Ethics and Pedagogy; secondly, it holds as closely as possible to the lines of knowledge and probability, avoiding current fashions and extremes such as are seen in Materialism, Spiritualism, and the much wandering ghost of Spinozaism. These three forms, as well as the principle of association by similarity, are rejected by the author. His independence and originality appear in the arrangement of his subject and in his treatment of the principle of causation. The work deserves a generous reception among students of philosophy, both for the richness of its contents and the attractive form in which it is published.

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Zu Bibel und Religionsphilosophie. Vorträge und Abhandlungen von H. Steinthal, Dr., Professor für allgemeine Sprachswissenschaft an der Universität Berlin. Pp. iii, 237. Berlin: Druck und Verlag von Georg Reimer. Mrk. 4.80. The thirteen essays which constitute this work have been published, with one exception, in various German periodicals. They are now brought together on the ground that each receives light from the others, and all must be read together to be properly understood and estimated. The essays are confined to the Old Testament, or written from this standpoint. A reference to a few of the essays may indicate the general character of all. The first on the Biblical art of narration indicates that all art arises within the boundaries of religion, and that the greatest poets are indebted to the Bible. The sixth essay, hitherto unpublished, treats of the creation of the world, of man, and of language according to the account given in the Genesis. It is a contribution not only to the philosophy of religion, but to philosophy itself, by throwing light on the doctrines of nominalism and the Logos. It gives a succinct statement of Jewish ontology, cosmology, and psychology, showing that the modern metaphysician and physicist have no better answers than those furnished by the prophets. Not less striking are the studies on "Truth and Development" and on "Myths and Religion." The Bible places Paradise at the beginning and at the end of human history, and has Lotze for a disciple of its view that Paradise is the objective point of humanity. Religion is defined as "the feeling of the sublime which awakens within us first of all the Ideals, and then all real things in so far as they realize the Ideal. It is the enthusiasm for the Good, the True, and the Beautiful. . Religion is a kind of knowledge and sense which is inseparably bound

with human nature." Myth is temporal form; religion is the eternal content. The eleventh essay is of the " Origin and Nature of Monotheism," directed against Renan's "Nouvelles considerations sur le caractère général des peuples sémitiques, et en particulier sur leur tendance au monotheisme." These essays lead one into the spirit of the Prophets, and make one conscious of their main thesis, God breathed into man the breath of life. The work is full of striking thoughts and far-reaching suggestions.

Rousseau und die deutsche Geschichtsphilosophie. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des deutschen Idealismus, von Richard Fester. Pp. x, 340. Stuttgart: G. J. Göschen'sche Verlagshandlung. Mrk. 5.50. Perhaps Rousseau was the most significant figure in the eighteenth century. Poets, philosophers, politicians, and pedagogues, consciously or unconsciously, became his disciples. If in Germany his influence was less violent than in France, it has been more persistent and permanent. The object of this work is to trace the influence of Rousseau in German thought, and particularly in its way of regarding man and his history. The longing for the lost Paradise has had its philosophy in Germany since the days of Rousseau, and the key to this philosophy is to be found in the personalities of her poets and thinkers, who are thought to place an unattainable ideal of manly character. The first chapter is an admirable statement of the fundamental principles of Rousseau and their divergence from those of Voltaire and the French Aufklärung. The German Aufklärung, the subject of the second chapter, looked upon Rousseau as an associate rather than as an opponent. This is brought out in the writings of Lessing, Mendelssohn, and Herder. The third chapter on Kant as a disciple of Rousseau shows the author's rare power of discrimination. It is clear that Kant, in his practical philosophy, held closely to Rousseau's view of man and nature. The eight following chapters concern Schiller, Fichte, Schelling, Schlegel, Schopenhauer, and Herbart, Krause, Hegel, and Schelling's positive philosophy, and William von Humboldt. An essay on the idea of eternal peace in the eighteenth century closes this most interesting work. One is impressed with the author's full and clear grasp of the difficult subject and his familiarity with philosophical principles and problems. The work is a new and valuable light on the philosophy of history as well as a contribution to the history of philosophy. From the standpoint of Rousseau we should like to have heard something of the Philanthropists, of Pestalozzi, and Lotze, but we lay the book aside promising ourselves the pleasure of a re-reading. The chronological table of literary sources is a valuable addition to the work.

Christlich-Sozial. Reden und Aufsätze, von Adolf Stöcker, Hof-undDomprediger in Berlin. Zweite Auflage. Pp. lx, 496. Berlin: Verlag der Buchhandlung der Berliner Stadtmission. Mrk. 3.Stöcker belongs to the Church Militant; he is the leader of Christian Socialism, and the foremost orator in Germany. He is hated and loved. While one calls him the "Tartuffe in social politics," we hear another saying, "He is the Pearl of the German people." We are glad to call attention to this new edition of his book, thoroughly revised by cutting away old matter and inserting much that is new. The sermons and addresses fall under three heads: (1) Addresses in the assemblies of the Christian Socialists of Berlin; (2) Addresses of a religious, social, and political nature, including those on social politics de

livered before the Reichstag, pages 133-359; and (3) Speeches on the Jewish question which are strongly Anti-Semitic. The book is a storehouse of suggestions on the social question.

mar.

Geschichte der Sprachswissenschaft bei den Griechen und Römern mit besonderer Rücksicht auf die Logik, von Dr. H. Steinthal, Professor für allg. Sprachswissenschaft an der Universität zu Berlin. Zweite vermehrte und verbesserte Auflage. Erster Theil. Pp. xvii, 374. Berlin Ferd. Dümmlers Verlagsbuchhandlung. Mrk. 8. The work now appears in two volumes instead of one as formerly. The contents of the volumes are essentially different. The first concerns logic; the second empirical grammar. The changes in the first part, although important and increasing the volume by ten pages, are not so great as those of the second part which is soon to appear. The author lays stress on his method concerning the development of the judgment which places logic before what can be properly called gramDr. Steinthal had hoped to make a complete history of the science of language, but now age forbids this hope. After the introduction in which his task is defined and the origin of grammar among different people indicated, the author turns his attention to the Philosophers, Plato, Aristotle, and the Stoics. This volume in its scope as well as in its historical study of fundamental terms, such as Nópe and pure, is alike important to the student of philosophy or language. Handbuch der Ethik, von Dr. Hermann Wolff. Pp. vii, 94. Verlag von Wilhelm Friedrich, K. K. Hofbuchhandler. Mrk. 2. ThisHandbook" contains the author's ethical views as expressed in his larger work, KOZMOZ. Die Weltentwickelung nach monistisch psychologischen Principien auf Grundlage der exakten Naturforschung. Zwei Bände. 1890. Mrk. 15.-The scheme is presented in three parts. (1) The analysis of human conduct; (2) the hedonistic element in the human soul, and (3) the moral factors in the spiritual life. The work ends with a dialogue concerning the true happiness of mankind. Dr. Wolff has generally been regarded as a disciple of von Kirchmann, but in a note, page 48, he explains his position. Kant gave him his problems while von Kirchmann roused him from rationalistic, speculative slumbers and indicated the way. Here the discipleship ends, as Wolff rejects the view that morality is founded upon authority. Neither intellect nor sensibility furnish a source out of which ethical principles may be drawn. Such principles are the product of the æsthetical nature of man. Love+Respect Reverence; here moral principles take their rise. The author defends the freedom of the will, and seems to move, with some exceptions, in the Kantian atmosphere. Mattoon M. Curtis.

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LEIPZIG, GERMANY.

THE

ANDOVER REVIEW:

A RELIGIOUS AND THEOLOGICAL MONTHLY.

VOL. XV.-MARCH, 1891.- No. LXXXVII.

THE PROXIMATE CAUSES OF THE CRUCIFIXION.

THE reader is invited to examine, with me, the testimony of the Four Gospels concerning the proximate causes which led to the crucifixion of our Lord. In order that our conclusions may be more firmly established, let us exclude from our premises the doctrine of the infallibility, and even the doctrine of the special inspiration of the Evangelists. We will not, however, exclude the possibility of miracles, for I regard the assumption of their impossibility as a thoroughly unreasonable begging of the question. Neither will we assume that the fourth Gospel could not have come from the Apostle John; for that is a conclusion which has by no means been proved.

On the contrary, I think we shall, from the examination to which the reader is invited, find strong reasons for placing the fourth Gospel as high in the scale of historical accuracy as in spiritual elevation. For my own part, the preliminary examination which I have already made has convinced me that the narratives of that Gospel must have been derived from a truthful witness intimately acquainted with the facts.

The proximate causes into which we would inquire began clearly to manifest themselves at the time when Jesus drew from Simon at Cæsarea Philippi that strong confession of faith, which led to the reply, Thou art Peter. (Matt. xvi. 13; Mark viii. 27; Luke ix. 18.) From that time Jesus began to show the disciples that the Messiah, so far from fulfilling the mistaken expectations of the chief men, was to suffer an ignominious death. (Matt. xvi. 21, etc.) The narrative of Matthew, with which that of Mark

Copyright, 1891, by HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & Co.

closely agrees, then goes on to describe the transfiguration; a visit to Galilee, in which Jesus repeats the warning that their faith would be tested when He himself was crucified; a visit to Capernaum; the starting toward Jerusalem; the attempt of the Pharisees to trip Him up concerning marriage and divorce; and a third solemn warning to the twelve that their faith in Him as the Messiah would be shaken when they saw Him crucified. He passes through Jericho; and as he draws near to Jerusalem (Matt. xx. 29-xxi. 17) borrows an ass's colt, rides into the city triumphantly, and drives the traders from the temple courts. He foretells the withering of a fig-tree; answers with marvelous dignity and wisdom various attempts to entrap Him; and the next day foretells the speedy destruction of the city. He gives the parable of the Last Judgment; and a fourth time warns his twelve that in two days more He would be arrested and hauled to death. The Pharisees had plotted to kill Him secretly, but not during the feast. The supper at Simon's house follows, and the pouring of ointment on his head. Judas agrees to betray Him; the Last Supper, the scene in the garden, the arrest, the conviction before the Sanhedrin, the sending of Him to Pilate, the confession to Pilate that He is a king; Pilate's desire to release Him, but yet giving Him up to be crucified; these follow in the narratives of Matthew and of Mark.

Matthew was one of the twelve; and Mark, being a connection of Peter's, probably obtained, as the ancient tradition runs, his materials from Peter. Luke was not one of the twelve; and to judge from his own preface, had but little direct personal knowledge of the events. He was, however, an educated and careful writer; and his account, drawn by inquiry from others, agrees in the main with that of Matthew and Mark. Yet he inserts several new, interesting, and valuable particulars; and he does not keep to precisely the same order of events. The most important difference is, that he omits the supper at Bethany, but inserts in his narrative, even earlier than Peter's confession of faith, a supper at the house of a Pharisee, at a place not named, when a woman who was a sinner anointed Jesus' feet. (Luke vii. 36, et seq.)

It has been abundantly proved that these three Gospels were in common use among Christians, in all parts of the Roman Empire, in the early part of the second century. They could not have obtained that wide circulation, at so early a period, had they not been introduced among the churches at a still earlier period, before the close of the first century. Moreover, they bear in them

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