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of its being the production of mind or intelligence. It was possible to throw out many ingenious hypotheses of a contrary kind, but I fairly owned that these suppositions had scarcely any weight with myself; and while I amused myself with starting difficulties, it was hardly with any other object than for the entertainment of my fancy."

"There was, however," said Cleanthes, "something in your objections, and they led me to suspect that I had not grounded my arguments so firmly as I might have done. Yet I do not perceive any imperfection in the principle on which we went." "I confess, too," said I, "that I was disappointed, Philo, when I found your ingenuity capable of furnishing even any plausible argument against the existence of a God, and that, while Cleanthes combatted you with proofs which neither your good sense nor good feelings could resist, yet there should appear to be any defect in them of which your acuteness could take hold."

"It is difficult," said Philo, "to find any cause, of which an active disputant may not support the worse side with some shew of reason. I believe, however, Cleanthes, you granted me somewhat too easily the position, that the argument that infers the existence of mind from the appearances of design, is merely an analogical argument, founded on experience. The fact is, that it has a much deeper foundation in our understanding. It is not because I have always seen human operations proceeding from design, that I judge the similar operations of nature to proceed from that principle, but because it is impossible for me, while I am in possession of my present faculties, not to trace the indications of design, whenever any of its effects are presented to my contemplation. Whatever bears the marks of order, disposition, plan, I cannot but conceive to proceed from these principles; and this by an original faculty of my understanding, previous to all experience. Suppose there were no human beings in existence but myself, and that my own hands had never been employed in bringing into form the ideas of my invention, still I believe, upon reflection, my notions of nature would be what they are at present; and without the assistance of any analogical argument, I should certainly read

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upon the face of external existence the legible characters of the divine mind. "It helps out the form of an argument, indeed, or is a good illustration of our meaning, when we compare the works of nature to the works of art: but suppose there were, properly speaking, no works of art, or that man had never given a local habitation and a name' to the images of his fancy, still he might perceive traces of intelligence in the universe of nature by which he is surrounded. Because we are so constantly occupied with the works of our own hands, therefore, when we speak of the effects of design, we are more apt to make a reference to these than to natural appearances; yet the latter have an immediate force of themselves to awaken in our minds the perception of intelligence and design, without the intervention of any analogical reasoning from those processes of art with which we are more intimately connected."

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“I believe, Philo," said Cleanthes, you have now placed the argument on its true foundation; and I see that, by so doing, you obviate a great many of those cavils with which you formerly perplexed me. If the argument for the existence of God were to rest entirely on an analogical resemblance between the works of human art and the appearances of nature, it would really be difficult to get rid of those methods by which you endeavoured to weaken the analogy. Analogies are faint as well as strong, and a weak analogy is but a slight degree of proof. Besides, I remember, you shewed there were other analogies in nature besides that of its resemblance to the works of man. The universe, you said, resembles an animal as much at least as a machine. Why may not the principle of its origin be generation as well as reason?"

"You see now, Cleanthes," said Philo, "in what manner a cavil of this kind must fall to the ground. The universe may be a machine, or an animal, or a vegetable, or the production of a concourse of atoms, or whatever the most fanciful philosopher may please to call it; still, whatever it is, the mind reads intelligence in it, and reason was employed in putting together the machine, in generating the animal, in sowing the seeds of vegetation, or in reducing into form and order the irregular dance of atoms."

"It is true, Philo," said I, "the most careless observer must read in nature the indications of design; but ean he be certain that he reads right? Is it impossible that he should be mistaken? There are many natural appearances which seem to be the work of design, but which philosophy can explain, and can point out the natural causes which produce the apparent order observed in them. Crystallization, for instance, is a process which produces appearances more regular than human art can imitate; and yet you surely will not say that there is design in the process."

"Indeed," said Philo, "but I will say so; and I should like to know what philosophy can point out to me those blind powers of nature which could of themselves produce the appearances which crystallization exhibits. Admitting certain principles to exist, and to operate in a certain manner, you say the forms of crystals follow as a necessary consequence; but I maintain, that design must have been employed in giving to those principles their energies, and the degree of their energy."

"Perhaps, Philo," said I, "this instance may be of very little moment in our inquiry, yet you will allow me to say, that if there is any meaning attached to the word fortuitous, the forms produced by crystallization are as fortuitous as any thing else, although they exhibit marks of design. Do you really think there is more evidence of the existence of God to be adduced from the form of crystals than from that of the most irregular rock?"

"If you are right," said Philo, "all that is to be concluded from your observation is, that regularity of form alone is not sufficient to prove design, although it may be a common indication of it." "Then what is sufficient," replied I." Means," said he, "employed for the accomplishment of an end. Innumerable instances of this kind occur in nature, and whenever we find them, we cannot hesitate for a moment about the intention. Who doubts that the eye was intended for the purposes of vision?" "I grant," said I, "the mind naturally forms this conclusion, but still is it a necessary conclusion? Is it possible that the fact should be otherwise? I may think the universe is conducted by intelligence, and it may be the only rational thought which I can form upon the subject,

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but am I as certain of this truth as that two and two are equal to four?" "If," said Philo, 66 you ask me whether the marks of design are as clearly indicative of design as that two and two make four, I shall answer that they are, because when you speak of the marks of design, you presuppose design, in the same way as when you speak of two and two, you presuppose the idea of four: and the only question is, whether, on throwing your thoughts over the universe, the eye of your mind has not as clear a perception of the existence of design as of any truth whatever."

"Your idea then," said I, 66 seems to be, that design is rather perceived than inferred. Yet in what manner perceived? Surely we do not know as certainly the existence of design from its effects, as from the consciousness of it in ourselves."

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Pretty nearly," said Philo," I am about as certain that you are an intelligent being as that I am one myself. Yet I do not pretend to be conscious of your intelligence. Your words, your actions convey indications of intelligence which seem to be as indisputable proofs as consciousness itself.” "It is really very difficult," replied I, "to catch the exact foundations of some of our daily and invariable opinions, and they may often have a less firm basis than we are willing to allow them. You, I think, are not unaccustomed to the sceptical language that, as agents, we must be quite satisfied, while, as speculative reasoners, we may be allowed to doubt. Perhaps our only ground for believing others to be reasonable beings as well as ourselves, is a kind of analogy drawn from the similarity between curselves and them. You are conscious of using certain words and gestures with meaning, and you ascribe, in like manner, meaning to others, when you hear their words, or perceive their actions. This is ground enough for conduct and belief, for we have no other; but is it reasonable, or can it be ascribed to any other operation of mind, except the influence of custom?"

"Then," said Philo, " you allow that the proofs of design in nature are at least as reasonable a ground for the belief of the existence of God, as the proofs which men exhibit of intelligence are, that they are possessed of that principle: a proof, to my apprehension, tolerably strong."

No," said

I, "the proof for the existence of God is not so strong as the other. There is no reason, we shall suppose, in either case. It is only the bent of my mind, the train of my thought, which leads me to conclude that other men are reasonable beings; but this is a train of thought without which I could not exist for a moment among them: it is necessary for me as an agent. The belief of the existence of God is only necessary for me if I am to be religious; but it remains to be proved that religion is a necessary part of human nature. We can go through life without it." "True," said Philo, 66 we may, in a great measure, go through life without the moral sentiments of religion: but I will venture to say, no reasonable being can exist without perceiving the fact that there is design in nature, and without founding all his conduct upon his perception." "Make out this position," said Cleanthes, "and you will do a great deal."

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Pray, Cleanthes," said Philo, "why do you believe that the sun will rise to-morrow?" "There are two answers," said Cleanthes, " to your question, between which you may choose. The belief is either instinctive, and no account can be given of it; or it is an effect of custom on the mind. There never has been a day without the appearance of the sun. I cannot think of to-morrow without supposing this appearance. I therefore believe that the sun will rise to-morrow."

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"I am not satisfied," replied Fhilo, "with either of these answers. conscious of no instinctive belief such as you mention. That the sun will rise to-morrow seems a reasonable belief, and not to rest upon any unaccountable principle. That the principle is not custom, I think may appear from this, that custom cannot be the principle of any thing. An opinion must exist in the mind before it can be customary. When it has existed a certain time, I can easily conceive that custom may rivet it more forcibly, and may continue it with scarcely any reference to the principle on which it

rests.

But it must rest on some principle antecedent to all custom. And this, by the way, is an answer to the supposition stated by Pamphilus, that the whole ground for our belief of the intelligence of other men is derived from a customary habit of thought which leads us to conceive others to be

like ourselves. What is the foundation of this habit? Custom may continue it, and we may lose sight of its foundation, but it must rest originally upon perception. Mind perceives mind. We not only think that others are intelligent beings, but we know them to be so."

"But what has all this to do," said Cleanthes, "with your question about the sun-rising, or rather, why did you ask that question?" "If our belief of this common fact," replied Philo," is founded neither on blind instinct, nor on a mere habit of thought, I can see only one ground on which it rests, and that is a very firm one. To me it seems certain that it rests upon our observation of the plan or order of nature. We perceive that the regular rising of the sun forms a part of the plan of the universe, and we predict, therefore, this event, with entire confidence in the ruling mind by which the universe is conducted. Mind perceives mind. If we had no perception that there is mind in nature, we should have no grounds for believing that the sun will rise to-morrow."

"I confess, Philo," said Cleanthes, "you place this argument in a point of view which never occurred to me, and if you are in the right, you interweave the proofs of the existence of God with all the first principles of human belief. But how can you prove so extraordinary a position? Has a child in his mother's arms a perception of the existence of mind in nature?"

"I really think so," said Philo, " and I see nothing at all miraculous in the supposition. Does a child perceive that its mother is a being possessed of feelings and faculties similar to its own? Surely it does, whenever it has sense to perceive any thing. Why may it not trace, as well, indications of order, plan, design, in every thing round about it? A child is not a deist, does not form to itself an abstract notion of God, as either an intelligent or a moral being; but still the merest infant has a perception that there is a system in which it moves. The order of nature, in a word, is accommodated to the human understanding. Mind cannot exist without feeling the impressions of mind from the surrounding universe, and it surrenders itself almost without its own consciousness to the sentiments of trust and dependence which those impres◄ sions inspire!"

LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Discovery of a New Metal.-Professor Berzelius of Stockholm, has communicated to Dr Marcet an account of the discovery of a new metal, which, from its resemblance to tellurium, he has called seleni

um.

This substance has the properties of a metal, combined with those of sulphur, to so great a degree, that it might be supposed to be a new species of sulphur. The following are some of its properties: In its metallic state, it has a brilliant metallic lustre on the external surface, with a tinge of red; the fracture is vitreous, like that of sulphur, but with a very brilliant lustre, of a gray colour. At the temperature of boiling water it softened, and at a high temperature it melts; it may be distilled at a temperature approaching to that of boiling mercury. Its gas, with which the heated part of the vessel may be filled, is yellow, exactly like that of sulphur. If it be sublimed in a large vessel, it is deposited in the form of flowers, of the colour of cinnabar, which are not, however, in the state of an oxide. During its cooling, it preserves for some time a certain degree of fluidity, so that it may be moulded between the fingers, and drawn into threads. The threads, when drawn out to a great degree of fineness, if held between the eye and the light, are transparent, and of a ruby colour; while by reflected light they exhibit a brilliant metallic lustre. When this new substance is heated by a candle, it burns with an azure-blue flame, and exhales a strong odour of horse radish, which led Berzelius to suppose that it was tellurium. It is not easy to produce this odour from purified tellurium, either because it does not belong to it, except in as much as it contains this new substance, or because it is difficult to make it undergo the change which is necessary to produce this odour.

ous gas, no larger than a small pea. Scarcely had I perceived the hepatic taste in the fauces, when I experienced another acute sensation I was seized with a giddiness, which, however, soon left me, and the sensibility of the schneiderian membrane was so far destroyed, that the strongest ammonia produced scarcely any effect upon the nose.

Selenium combines with the alkalies, both in the humid way and by fusion; these combinations are red. The selenurets of barytes and of lime are also red, but they are insoluble. It also dissolves in melted wax and in the fat oils; the solutions are red, but have no hepatic odour. There exist also selenuretted hydroselenurets of the alkalies and of the earths.

Selenium dissolves in nitric acid by the assistance of heat; the solution, evaporated and sublimated, yields a mass crystallized in needles, which is a pretty strong acid; it has a pure acid flavour, and forms specific salts with the alkalies, earths, and metallic oxides. The selenic acid is soluble in water and in alcohol; its combinations with potash and ammonia are deliquescent; the latter is decomposed by fire, water is given out, and the selenium is reduced. The selenates of barytes and of lime are soluble in water. The selenic acid mixed with muriatic acid is decomposed by zinc, and the selenium is precipitated in the form of a red powder; by sulphuretted hydrogen gas, an orangeyellow precipitate is formed.

The above contains a concise exposition of the characters of this interesting substance. With respect to its origin, it is evident that it proceeds from the pyrites of Fahlun, where, according to the observation of M. Gahn, its odour may be often perceived when the copper ore is roasted. The pyrites from which the sulphur of Fahlun is extracted, is combined with galena, and it is probable that this contains selenium in the form of selenuret of lead.

Selenium combines with metals, and generally produces a reddish flame. The alloys have commonly a gray colour, and a metallic lustre. The selenuret of potassium Discovery of a New Alkali.-Mr Arveddissolves in water, without evolving any gas, son, a young Swedish chemist, has disand produces a fluid of a red colour, which covered a new fixed alkali, in a new mihas the taste of the hydrosulphuret of pot- neral, called petalite, which was discoverash. If we pour diluted muriatic acid upon ed some time ago (See our last Number, the selenuret of potassium, a selenuretted p. 699.) by M. D'Andrada, in the mine of hydrogen gas is disengaged, which is soluble Uten, in Sweden. It is distinguished from in water, and precipitates all metallic solu- the old alkalies: 1st, By the fusibility of its tions, even those of zinc and iron. The gas salts: 2d, By its muriate, which is delihas the odour of sulphuretted hydrogen gas, quescent, like the muriate of lime; 3d, By when it is diluted with air; but if it is breath- its carbonate, which does not readily dised less diluted, it produces a painful sensation solve in water; and, 4th, By its great capain the nose, and a violent inflammation, end-city of saturating acids, in which it even ing in a catarrh, which continues for a con- surpasses magnesia. siderable length of time. I am still suffering, says Berzelius, from having breathed, some days ago, a bubble of selenuretted hydrogen

New Lamp.-The new lamp which we describe in our last Number, p. 699, and which has since been called the aphlogistic

lamp, appears to have been invented first by Mr Francis Ellis of Bath, who performed the experiment in August 1817.

New Photometer.-A new photometer has been invented by Mr Horner of Zurich. It consists of various discs of fine varnished China paper placed in a tube. The number of discs necessary to exclude the light, is then a measure of the intensity of the excluded light. According to this instrument, the light of the sun in a clear sky, and at an elevation of 30°, is 75°; the light of the full moon 34°; and the light of a common candle 48°. These results are nearly ridiculous. Mr Leslie's photometer informs us, that the moon has no light at all, even when concentrated by the most powerful burning lens; but Mr Horner, going to the opposite extreme, makes the moon's light almost one-half of the sun's; while Dr Smith informs us, in his Optics, that it would require 180,000 moons to produce a light equal to common day-light. The art of measuring the intensity of light appears, from these results, to be in a state of deplorable imperfection.

New Comet.-A new comet was discovered at Marseilles on the night of the 26th December last, by M. Pons, in the constellation of the Swan, near the northern wing. It had a nebulous appearance. Its light was extremely feeble, and its figure indeterminate. It had neither nucleus nor tail. It was seen again on the 29th of the same month, in the evening, but only for a few minutes, in consequence of clouds. Its situation was then about two degrees south of its first position. Its light was more bright, and its apparent size increased.

A small

nucleus could then also be distinguished. It was seen again on the morning of February 14th, and was still in the constellation of the Swan, but farther south.

It was

The same comet has been observed at Augsburg on the 2d of this month. found near the star i of the fourth magnitude, on the outside of the wing of the Swan, and above the constellation of the Fox. It is considerably enlarged, and its nucleus is now very distinct.

New Observatory at Cambridge.-It is proposed to build an observatory within the precincts of Cambridge University, the expense of which is estimated at about £10,000. A grace will be proposed to the Senate for a donation of £5,000 from the University chest, and a subscription opened for raising the remainder of the sum. Application is to be made to Government to appoint an observer and an assistant, with adequate salaries.

M. de Lalande's Medal.-The gold medal founded by the late M. de Lalande has been awarded by the Institute and Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, to Mr Pond, the Astronomer Royal at Greenwich, for his interesting and important researches on the annual parallax of the fixed stars.

New Harpoon. A new harpoon has been

invented by Mr Robert Garbutt of Kingston-upon-Hull, for the Greenland fishery; calculated to secure the whale in the event of the shank of the instrument breaking. The improvement consists in placing a kind of preventer, made fast to the eye of the foregager, which passing along the shank of the harpoon, is attached to the thick part of it in such a manner, as neither to lessen its strength nor impede its entrance when the fish is struck.

Nautical Instrument.-Among other ingenious inventions submitted to the Board of Longitude, one countenanced by the Board, and recommended to the Lords of the Admiralty for immediate trial, is likely to facilitate the object intended in exploring the polar regions. The merit of this invention is, that it works horizontally and vertically, assuming the magnetic meridian by its own action. The inventor is Mr Lockwood of the navy.

Test for Sugar.-It has been proposed by M. Dobereiner, to test sugar in solution, in small quantities, by adding to a portion of the liquid a few grains of yeast, and placing it in a vessel closed by mercury. A fermentation takes places, and the bulk of gas liberated indicates the quantity of sugar.

Change of Colour by Acids.-The effects of muriatic acid gas and ammoniacal gas upon turmeric paper, are so similar, that it is difficult to distinguish the two by this test alone. The acid reddens it almost as much as the alkali. Phosphoric, nitric, muriatic, and particularly sulphuric acid, also redden turmeric paper; but in all these cases, water, even in small quantities, immediately restores the original colour.

Cholesteric Acid.-MM. Pelletier and Caventon have obtained a new acid from cholesterine, or the pearly substance of human biliary calculi, discovered by Poulletier-deLasselle, and named by Chevreul. Cholesterine is to be heated with its weight of strong nitric acid, until it ceases to give off nitrous gas. A yellow substance separates on cooling, scarcely soluble in water, and which, when well washed, is pure cholesteric acid.

It is soluble in alcohol, and may be crystallized by evaporation. It is decomposed by a heat above that of boiling water, and gives products containing oxygen, hydrogen, and charcoal, as their elements. bines with bases, and forms salts. Those of potash, soda, and ammonia, are very soluble; the rest are nearly insoluble.

It com

Water Spout.-On Saturday, March 7th, an immense water-spout descended at Stenbury, near Whitwell, in the Isle of Wight. The weather was very stormy immediately before its fall, and for one half hour was in a continual terrific roar. The descent of the water was compared to the influx of the sea, so great was its quantity, and destruction to those on the spot appeared inevitable. Walls were broken down, and cattle were carried away and dispersed.

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