Things. Innate Ideas an insufficient foundation. Will. Disinterested action. Happiness. Moral Code, the common good of all rational beings. Obligations in respect of giving and of receiving. Politics. Religion.....

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Disinterested

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146

ib.

159

CUDWORTH. Moral Good and Evil cannot be arbitrary. The mind has a power of Intellection, above Sense, for aiming at the eternal and immutable verities...... CLARKE. The eternal Fitness and Unfitness of Things determine Justice, Equity, Goodness and Truth, and lay corresponding obligations upon reasonable creatures. The sanction of Rewards and Punishments secondary and additional. Our Duties. 148 WOLLASTON. Resolves good and evil into Truth and Falsehood .... 152 LOCKE. Arguments against Innate Practical Principles. Freedom of the Will. Moral Rules grounded in law. BUTLER. Characteristics of our Moral Perceptions. Benevolence a fact of our constitutions. Our passions and affections do not aim at self as their immediate end. The Supremacy of Conscience established from our moral nature. Meanings of Nature. Benevolence not ultimately at variance with SelfLove.... HUTCHESON.-Primary feelings of the mind. Finer perceptionsBeauty, Sympathy, the Moral Sense, Social feelings; the benevolent order of the world suggesting Natural Religion. Order or subordination of the feelings as Motives; position of Benevolence. The Moral Faculty distinct and independent. Confirmation of the doctrine from the Sense of Honour. Happiness. The tempers and characters bearing on happiness. Duties to God. Circumstances affecting the moral good or evil of actions. Rights and Laws.... 166 MANDEVILLE. Virtue supported solely by self-interest. Compassion resolvable into self. Pride an important source of moral virtue. Private vices, public benefits. Origin of Society..... HUME. Question whether Reason or Sentiment be the foundation of morals. The esteem for Benevolence shows that Utility enters into virtue. Proofs that Justice is founded solely on Utility. Political Society has utility for its end. The Laws. Why Utility pleases. Qualities useful to ourselves. Qualities agreeable (1) to ourselves, and (2) to others. Obligation. The respective share of Reason and of Sentiment in moral approbation. Benevolence not resolvable into Self-Love.

PRICE. The distinctions of Right and Wrong are perceived by the Understanding. The Beauty and Deformity of Actions. The feelings have some part in our moral discrimination. Self-Love and Benevolence. Good and ill Desert. Obligation. Divisions of

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184

Virtue. Intention as aħ element in virtuous action. Estimate of degrees of Virtue and Vice...

ADAM SMITH. Illustration of the workings of Sympathy. Mutual sympathy. The Amiable and the Respectable Virtues. How far the several passions are consistent with Propriety. Influences of prosperity and adversity on moral judgments. The Sense of Merit and Demerit. Self-approbation. Love of Praise and of Praiseworthiness. Influence and authority of Conscience. Self-partiality; corrected by the use of General Rules. Connexion of Utility with Moral Approbation. Influence of Custom on the Moral Sentiments. Character of Virtue. Self-command. Opinion regarding the theory of the Moral Sense.

HARTLEY. Account of Disinterestedness. The Moral Sense a product of Association..

REID. Duty not to be resolved into Interest. Conscience an ori-
ginal power of the mind. Axiomatic first principles of Morals.
Objections to the theory of Utility..
STEWART. The Moral Faculty an original power. Criticism of
opposing views. Moral Obligation: connexion with Religion.
Duties. Happiness: classification of pleasures.
BROWN. Moral approbation a simple emotion of the mind. Univer-
sality of moral distinctions. Objections to the theory of Utility.
Disinterested sentiment...

PALEY. The Moral Sense not intuitive. Happiness. Virtue: its
definition. Moral Obligation resolved into the command of God.
Utility a criterion of the Divine Will. Utility requires us to con-
sider general consequences. Rights. Duties....
BENTHAM. Utility the sole foundation of Morals. Principles adverse
to Utility. The Four Sanctions of Right. Comparative estimate
of Pleasures and Pains. Classification of Pleasures and Pains.
Merit and Demerit. Pleasures and pains viewed as Motives: some
motives are Social or tutelary, others Dissocial or Self-regarding.
Dispositions. The consequences of a mischievous act. Punish-
Private Ethics (Prudence) and Legislation distinguished;
their respective spheres
MACKINTOSH. Universality of Moral Distinctions. Antithesis or
Reason and Passion. It is not virtuous acts but virtuous disposi-
tions that outweigh the pains of self-sacrifice. The moral senti-
ments have for their objects Dispositions. Utility. Development
of Conscience through Association; the constituents are Gratitude,
Sympathy, Resentment and Shame, together with Education. Re-
ligion must presuppose Morality. Objections to Utility criticised.

ment.

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205

219

219

ib.

225

232

237

245

Duties to ourselves, an improper expression." Reference of moral
sentiments to the Will..

JAMES MILL. Primary constituents of the Moral Faculty-pleasu-
rable and painful sensations. The Causes of these sensations. The
Ideas of them, and of their causes. Hope, Fear; Love, Joy;
Hatred, Aversion. Remote causes of pleasures and pains-
Wealth, Power, Dignity, and their opposites. Affections towards
our fellow-creatures-Friendship, Kindness, &c. Motives. Dis-
positions. Applications to the virtue of Prudence. Justice-by
what motives supported. Beneficence. Importance in moral
training, of Praise and Blame, and their associations; the Moral
Sanction. Derivation of Disinterested Feelings....
AUSTIN. Laws defined and classified. The Divine Laws; how are
we to know the Divine Will? Utility the sole criterion. Objec-
tions to Utility. Criticism of the theory of a Moral Sense. Pre-
vailing misconceptions as to Utility. Nature of Law resumed and
illustrated. Impropriety of the term 'law' as applied to the ope-
rations of Nature

WHEWELL. Opposing schemes of Morality. Proposal to reconcile them. There are some actions Universally approved. A Supreme Rule of Right to be arrived at by combining partial rules: these are obtained from the nature of our faculties. The rule of Speech is Truth; Property supposes Justice; the Affections indicate Humanity. It is a self-evident maxim that the Lower parts of our nature are governed by the Higher. Classification of Springs of Action. Disinterestedness. Classification of Moral Rules. Division of Rights..

Sym

FERRIER. Question of the Moral Sense: errors on both sides.
pathy passes beyond feeling, and takes in Thought or self-con-
sciousness. Happiness has two ends-the maintenance of man's
Rational nature, and Pleasure..

MANSEL. The conceptions of Right and Wrong are sui generis. The
moral law can have no authority unless emanating from a lawgiver.
The Standard is the moral nature, and not the arbitrary will, of
God..

JOHN STUART MILL. Explanation of what Utilitarianism consists in.
Reply to objections against setting up Happiness as the Ethical
end. Ultimate Sanction of the principle of Utility: the External
and Internal sanctions; Conscience how made up. The sort of
Proof that Utility is susceptible of:-the evidence that happiness
is desirable, is that men desire it; it is consistent with Utility that
virtue should be desired for itself. Connexion between Justice and
Utility :-meanings of Justice; essentially grounded in Law; the

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265

271

278

284

286

sentiments that support Justice, are Self-defence, and Sympathy; Justice owes its paramount character to the essential of Security; there are no immutable maxims of Justice.. BAILEY. Facts of the human constitution that give origin to moral phenomena :--susceptibility to pleasure and pain, and to the causes of them; reciprocation of these; our expecting reciprocation from others; sympathy. Consideration of our feelings in regard to actions done to us by others. Our feelings as spectators of actions done to others by others. Actions done to ourselves by others. The different cases combine to modify each other. Explanation of the discrepancies of the moral sentiment in different communities. The consequences of actions the only criterion for rectifying the diversities. Objections to the happiness-test. The term Utility unsuitable. Disputes as to the origin of moral sentiment in Reason or in a Moral Sense.

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... 300

SPENCER. Happiness the ultimate, but not the proximate, end. Moral Science a deduction from the laws of life and the conditions of existence. There have been, and still are, developing in the race, certain fundamental Moral Intuitions. The ExpediencyMorality is transitional. Reference to the general theory of Evolution.

son.

KANT. Distinguishes between the empirical and the rational mode
of treating Ethics. Nothing properly good, except Will. Sub-
jection of Will to Reason. An action done from natural inclina-
tion is worthless morally. Duty is respect for Law; conformity
to Law is the one principle of volition. Moral Law not ascertain-
able empirically, it must originate a priori in pure (practical) Rea-
The Hypothetical and Categorical Imperatives. Imperative
of Prudence. Imperative of Morality. The formula of Morality.
The ends of Morality. The Rational nature of man is an end-in-
itself. The Will the source of its own laws-the Autonomy of the
Will. The Reason of Ends. Morality alone has intrinsic Worth
or Dignity. Principles founded on the Heteronomy of the Will-
Happiness, Perfection. Duty legitimized by the conception of the
Freedom of the Will, properly understood. Postulates of the pure
Practical Reason-Freedom, Immortality, God. Summary.
COUSIN. Analysis of the sentiments aroused in us by human actions.
The Moral Sentiment made up of a variety of moral judgments—
Good and Evil, Obligation, Liberty, Merit and Demerit. Virtue
brings Happiness. Moral Satisfaction and Remorse. The Law of
Duty is conformity to Reason. The characteristic of Reason is
Universality. Classification of Duties:-Duties to Self; to Others
-Truth, Justice, Charity. Application to Politics..

307

311

326

JOUFFROY. Each creature has a special nature, and a special end. Man has certain primary passions to be satisfied. Secondary passions-the Useful, the Good, Happiness. All the faculties controlled by the Reason. The End of Interest. End of Universal Order. Morality the expression of divine thought; identified with the beautiful and the true. The moral law and self-interest coincide. Boundaries of the three states-Passion, Egoism, Moral

determination.

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