ideas, and motory changes.-We should preter employing, in what follows, the terms sensible changes and ideal changes, rather than the terms sensations and ideas, because these imply consciousness, which we have before stated is not necessarily excited by the operations of the sensitive and associative powers: we shall, however, content ourselves with requesting the reader to bear in mind, that whatever may be said respecting connections among sensations and ideas, might be stated more generally respecting connections among sensible and ideal changes. Whatever the sensorium be, or whatever be those changes of it which excite the consciousness, it is among those changes, that is, among the sensorial changes, that connections and compositions take place. CLASSES OF CONNECTIONS. First: a sensation may be associated with other sensations, ideas, and motory changes. 21. A sensation, after having been associated a sufficient number of times with another sensation, will, when impressed alone, excite the simple idea (§ 8.), corresponding with that other sensation. Thus the names, smells, tastes, &c. of external objects, suggest the idea of their visible appearance; and the sight of them suggests their names, &c. In the same manner, a word half pronounced, excites the idea of the whole word; the mention of the letters a, b, suggests the idea of c, d, &c.; the sight of part of an object suggests the idea of the whole; and the sight of one object recals the visual idea of other objects which have been uniformly or very frequently seen with it.—Innumerable other instances might be given with little trouble, but we shall mention only one other, which may assist some of our readers in accounting for certain cases of apparitions. L. was one day hastily passing by a room in which a very excellent friend had usually sat in a particular chair, and in a particular part of the room. His thoughts at the time were employed on some object which did not excite deep attention, and the sight of the chair excited in his mind a vivid visual idea of his friend as sitting in that ehair. The friend had been dead some weeks, and L. involuntarily came back for another vision, but without effect.-Such visual ideas, and similar ideas derived from the other senses, particularly from the hearing, are by Dugald Stewart called conceptions; and where they are vivid and easily excited, they fre quently lead those who are inattentive to their sensations to suppose that they actu ally saw and heard, at a particular time, what they did not then see or hear. 22. Sensations become connected with ideas, so that the repetition of the sensation will excite the connected idea.--Of this case of connections the following will serve as examples. Words associated with ideas, will readily excite them even when very complex: the words hero, philosopher, justice, benevolence, truth, and the like, whether written or pronounced, immedi-.. ately call up with precision the corresponding idea. The hearing of a particular national tune, is said to overpower the Swiss soldier in a foreign land with melancholy and despair; and it is, therefore, forbidden in the armies in which they serve. The sound recals various heartfelt recollections; the idea of the peace, and the freedom of their country, of the home from which they are torn, and to which they may never return. What trains of interesting thought and feeling are usually called up in the mind by the sight of the scenes of early pleasure, where passed those years when novelty gave charms to every sensation, every employment of the faculty, when hope presented no prospects but what were decked in "fancy's fairy frostwork," and present joys precluded all regret for the past. 23. Sensations may become connected with muscular action, that is, with those sensorial changes which are followed by muscular action; so that the sensation will excite the muscular action, without the intervention of that state of mind which is called will.-A person automatically (that is without any volition), turns his head towards another who calls him by his name. When the hand of another is rapidly moved towards the eye, we shut the eye without thinking about it, or even being conscious of it. When copying from any book, if a person is very familar with the employment, the appropriate motion of the fingers immediately follows, the impression produced by the appearance of the word. In the same manner the visible impression derived from musical notes regulate the motions of the performer. "While I am walking through that grove before my window," says Darwin, “I do not run against the trees or the branches, though my thoughts are completely engaged on some other object" the sensible impression produced by the objects around, excite in the sensorium the appropriate connected motory changes, and these the action of certain muscles. Secondly, ideas may be connected with sensations, ideas, or motory motions. 24. An idea associated a sufficient number of times with a sensation, will excite the simple idea belonging to that sensation. Thus the ideas, whether simple or complex, which have been sufficiently associated with names, excite the ideas of their respective names. Hence it is that we find ourselves continually thinking in words; that is, the trains of ideas which pass in our minds, are accompanied with their corresponding expressions, when those expressions are familiar to us: and it may be remarked that the habit of thinking in words is one which contributes greatly to accuracy and facility of thought, and therefore one which the young reasoner will do well to cultivate. Those who are habituated to reasoning, find their trains of reasoning so generally clothed in words, and words so necessary to their intellectual operations, that the words are what they most attend to, and some have even gone so far as to suppose that general reasoning is concerned merely about words and not about ideas. They seem to lie under a similar error with those who imagine that the visible appearance of objects is all we attend to when we speak of magnitude, shape, &c.; whereas the fact is, that the visible appearance is nothing more than a symbol which serves to introduce the connected complex idea into the mind and to keep its parts connected: and this then is the grand end of words in general reasoning. We are conscious while we are thinking, of employing the relicts of audible sensations; we seem to have faint sensa tions of sounds passing in the sensorium; but it appears probable that those who have long lost the use of their hearing, and have generally employed sight as the inlet of knowledge, have a train of visual, instead of audible conceptions. All, however, which we particularly wish to have noticed here is that these things afford instances of the connections of ideas with sensations, so that the idea introduces the simple idea belonging to that sensation. 25. Next, an idea associated with an idea, (whether notion or feeling) will excite that idea. Thus the idea of benevolence will excite that of merit; of courage, that of honour; of great talents, that of respect; of cruelty, that of horror; of mean ness that of contempt. VOL. V. 26. Again, an idea associated with a motory change, will excite that motory change, (and its consequent muscular action). Thus, the desire to perform a particular action will produce the corresponding voluntary motion of the limbs; joy produces a pleasing cast of countenance; fear excites trembling; and horror distortion. In the same manner when we are employed in committing our thoughts to writing, the idea of the words which we intend to commit to paper, if the character be not peculiar, or novel, will immediately suggest and be followed by the appropriate motion of the fingers, and this without the intervention of volition, sometimes without even the consciousness of the motory changes, or of the muscular actions produced by them. So also in speaking, unless some difficult pronunciation occur, the muscular actions requisite for the formation of the sounds follow immediately the conception of the words, without the intervention of the will. Thirdly, motory changes, (and their correspondent muscular actions), may be connected with sensations, ideas, and other motory changes, (and their correspondent muscular actions). 27. Muscular actions may be associated with sensations; that is, when muscular actions have been sufficiently long associated with sensations, the repetition of the muscular action alone will excite the simple idea belonging to that sensation. Thus the action of dancing will bring to mind the conception of the music with which it has been often accompanied. Again children often accustom themselves to particular motions of the limbs, while committing to memory, or while repeating what they have learnt; and those muscular actions in many instances become necessary to their correct, and ready recollection, and even to their recollection at all. Addison, says Miss Edgeworth, represents with much humour the case of a poor man, who had the habit of twirling a bit of thread round his finger; the thread was accidentally broken, and the orator stood mute. 28. So again muscular actions may be associated with ideas; that is, when muscular actions have been sufficiently long associated with ideas, those muscular actions will excite those ideas: thus dancing will introduce cheerfulness into the mind. So particular muscular actions have, from habitual connection, a tendency to excite certain trains of thought or states of mind: R those who have been accustomed to one posture while studying, find it difficult to study so well in any other posture; and persons who, while engaged in deep meditation, have been accustomed to any little motions of body, find the continuance of those motions requisite for the continuance of their abstraction of mind. It is upon the same principle that certain postures of body have a tendency to produce those feelings which all should have when addressing the Supreme Being.-The cases, how ever, in which muscular action introduces ideas either simple or compound, are much less numerous than those in which sensations and ideas introduce muscular actions. In fact it is not the usual order of association; and besides, it is sometimes very difficult to say what effect is produced by the muscular action itself, and what by the sensations which generally accompany mus. cular action. In the next case the point is clearer. 29. Muscular actions become connected with other muscular actions (that is, the motory changes which produce the one with those which produce the other), so that the former may introduce the latter without the intervention of the will.-If different muscular actions are produced together, they are called synchronous; if one immediately follows the other they are called successive, and the association is in like manner termed synchronous or successive.-The motions of the hands when a person is playing upon the piano-forte, the motions of the hands and feet in weaving and in spinning, and various other muscular actions which will readily suggest themselves to the reader, may be stated as instances of synchronous associations of muscular actions. The motions of the organs of speech in reading or speaking, of the feet in walking, and of the fingers in writing or speaking, are instances of successive associations of muscular actions. 30. These nine cases of the association of sensorial changes are comprehended by Hartley in the following general theorem: "If any sensation, A, idea, B, or muscular motion, C, be associated for a sufficient number of times with another sensation, D, idea, E, or muscular action, F, it will at last excite, d, the simple idea belonging to the sensation, D, the very idea, E, or the very muscular action, F."-The sensation itself cannot of course be re-excited, because that depends upon the presence of the object of the sense; but sometimes, as in an instance stated in § 21, the simple idea be. longing to a sensation is so vivid, that it equals, if not surpasses the original sensation; and it should be observed that the sensorial change corresponding to the sen sation, is the same in kind as that corresponding to the simple idea left by that sensation; that is, any sensible change and its simple ideal change are the same in kind, differing only in vividness, and sometimes equal in that respect.-It may also be well to observe here, that when Hartley and his disciples speak of muscular actions clinging together, they obviously mean that the motory changes of the sensorium become connected together, and not as some seem to have supposed, and indeed as, their words imply, that the motions of muscles are connected without any intervention of the mind (taking the term in the popular sense). It is true they suppose that volition has nothing to do in the association when complete, though originally perhaps concerned in the formation of the association; and also that it may go on without even exciting the consciousness; but we know of none who suppose that the mental organs (the mind in the popular sense) are less concerned in the connections among muscular actions, than in those among sensations and ideas. All the sensorial changes may and do become connected together, and the one may produce the other, and so on, without the consciousness being excited; but no external impression, which does not act by stimulating or impelling the moving muscle, can produce muscular action without the action of the mental organs; and, in like manner, no muscular action can produce another muscular action (except what may be termed mere physical motion, such as might be produced by any foreign body mechanically acting upon the muscular system), without the action of the mental organs. The whole of the connection is mental, and we think that if this idea be kept in view, and employed in the explanation of the Hartleyan phraseology respecting connections among muscular actions, that it will remove some of the difficulties which are felt respecting this part of the Hartleyan system, and show that the objections which have been urged against it arose from an incomplete idea of that system. LAWS OF CONNECTIONS. We now proceed to our second object (18.), viz. to point out and illustrate some of the leading laws of that class of associa tions which we term connections; premising that many of the observations which follow are, as the reader will readily perceive, equally applicable to that class which we term compositions.-These laws regard, 1. The strength of connections; 2. The disunion of connections; 3. The formation of connections by means of intermediate links (which we may call the law of transference); and 4. Habitual biases to particular kinds of connections. 1. The Strength of Connections. 31. The strength and durability of connections depend partly upon the degree of attention with which the connected sensorial changes have been attended, and partly upon the frequency with which they have recurred in connection; less generally, partly upon the vividness of the connected ideas; and partly upon the frequency with which the connected ideas, or muscular actions, have recurred in connection.-We may ad duce, as an illustration of the former cause of strength and durability, that circumstances of a light and trivial nature, which have occurred while our minds were occupied with subjects of a strongly pleasing nature, form no connection with the concur ring train of ideas, even if the attention were drawn off by them. For instance, suppose we were attending to an interesting discourse, if our attention were for a moment called off by the coughing of a person near us, the train of thought suggested by the sermon would form no connexion with the cause of the interruption, and it would pass in the mind without the idea of the interruption being introduced. But suppose a poor man to have fallen down in a fit of apoplexy, the circumstance would strongly interest our sympathy and excite our attention; many feelings would be brought into active exercise; and the ideas which were at that time in the view of the mind, would probably ever after present with them those of the scene which so strongly affected us.-Hence the importance that those who have the care of education, should seize the happy moments when circumstances have peculiarly interested the mind, to connect with them those related maxims of prudence, benevolence, and piety, which so introduced may have a lasting effect in regulating the disposition; but which, brought in a form less interesting, will have no permanent bond of union, and will soon be obliterated.-Hence, too, the importance of instilling into the mind those principles which are designed to have a constant operation in the thoughts, and feelings, and actions, of life, in such a form that they shall become connected with those thoughts and feelings which have already a firm hold in the mind, and thus be brought into view and excited into action much more frequently and uniformly. -The effect of frequent recurrence in producing strength and durability of associa tion, may be best explained by the associations which take place between words and their corresponding ideas. These connections are not in general attended with any particular cause of association, except frequency of recurrence, and therefore they are the most unexceptionable instances. Now, other things being equal, we find that those words which are most frequently called up in the mind in connection with the ideas to which they belong, have a closer connection with those ideas; that is, the idea suggests the word, and the word suggests the idea, with greater certainty, and the association is more permanent. The following remarks of Dr. Percival will illustrate this general principle. 66 Slight paralytic affections of the organs of speech," says the Doctor, "sometimes occur without any corresponding disorder of the other parts of the body. Hence the effort to speak succeeds the volition of the mind slowly and imperfectly, and words are uttered with faltering and hesitation. These are facts of common notoriety: but I have never seen it remarked that in these local palsies the pronunciation of proper names is attended with peculiar difficulty; and that the recollection of them becomes very obscure, or is entirely obliterated, while the recollection of persons, places, and things, remains unchanged. This confirms the theory of associations, and at the same time admits of an easy solution by it. For as words are arbitrary marks, and owe their connection with what they impart to established usage, the strength of this connection will be exactly proportioned to the frequency of their recurrence, and this recurrence must be more frequent with specific terms." 33. Besides these two universally operating causes of the strength and durability of association, it is proper to observe that they depend also upon the predisposition of the mind, the habitual bias of thought and feeling, and the prevailing cast of the associations already formed. This may in part be resolved into the first cause, the degree of vividness of the connected ideas; but in part it must be considered as separate. Where there are associations of a contrary tendency, the production of the new association implies the destruction of the old one; and hence it is that persons who have passed the prime of life feel it so exceed ingly difficult to acquire new associations which are in opposition to those long formed. Hence it is that all those improper biases of thought and feeling which oppose the best regulation of thought and feeling, should be carefully shunned; all those associations carefully prevented which lead the mind away from God and duty, or which simply check the reception of those which accord with the dictates of religion. They do more than directly injure by their own existence; they injure also, and this in no small degree, by preventing the formation of those associations which directly prompt to the course which duty points out. 34. An acquaintance with these principles leads us to the direct method of confirming associations which are essential to our well-being; suppose, for instance, the connection of a regard to the will of God, with our conduct, we should endeavour to connect as much as possible those pleasurable feelings which have a tendency to strengthen the links of union, we should cultivate the connection by frequently and continually bringing it into action, and we should carefully cultivate those related states of mind which have a tendency to foster and strengthen the connection. To avoid weakening it we should be careful not to associate any contrary trains of ideas (for instance, we should never attach feelings of ridicule with any thing connected with religion), and should carefully avoid those breaks in the association which will follow neglect in its cultivation. And it is a most satisfactory idea that if vicious associations may be formed so strongly as to lie beyond the power of the individual to annihilate them; virtuous associations may also be formed so strong and permanent as to bid defiance to time and to temptation. These shall survive the wreck of nature, and shall adorn the mental fabric when this world, and all its sorrows and enjoyments, shall be no more. 2. Disunion of Connections. 55. As connections are necessarily form ed, and frequently without any volition on the part of the individual, by the before mentioned circumstances, it is another very important law of the associative power that these connections are not indestructible.-We observe then that an association may be destroyed either by the formation of other contrary associations, or by the repetition of it being in some way or other prevented. Thus, for instance, if we wish to destroy the association by which we have attached ideas of merit to those spurious ideas of courage which lead a man to sacrifice the life of a fellow man, and perhaps the happiness of several, to the dictates of offended honour, our aim must be to associate all the dreadful consequences of his conduct with the conduct itself; to call to mind the injury to society resulting from the violation of its laws and the deprivation of an useful member; the injury resulting to the connections of the individual from the cruel breach made in their peace and among their means of happiness; the injury to the individual himself by hastening him unprepared into the presence of his Maker, with this additional act to answer for: even the injury to the avenger, by culti vating the feelings of resentment, by loosening the restraints of passion, may be added to the already numerous evils resulting from this exercise of private revenge. These frequently brought into view would destroy the incorrect association which we had formed; would associate demerit instead of merit with the conduct of the duellist; and attach the idea of merit strongly to him who nobly resisted the opinion of the world of honour, and declined obedience to the laws which it imposes, where those laws were in contradiction to the laws of his conscience and of his God.-So, in numerous other instances, where an association unfor tunately exists in the mind unfavourable to the formation or exercise of good dispositions, it may be weakened gradually indeed, but certainly weakened, and at last destroyed by the steady culture of opposite associations. That conduct to which pions benevolence prompts, may acquire so at tractive an appearance, that ideas of dif ficulty, of pain, of ridicule, which may have been attached to it, and which may have impeded its exercise, will gradually give way to those which the divine approbation affords, of present peace and future happiness.-But there is not always time for this slow procedure. It may be necessary for individual happiness, that the baneful as sociation should be destroyed without one repetition of it to confirm its power. To the general culture of opposite associations must then be added a steady careful pre |