the inserted proposition in the preceding period thus, quid sit quod, quum tot summi oratores hominesque nobilissimi sedeant, neque in hac causa, quod in aliis facere consueverunt, vocem pro salute hominis innocentissimi mittere audeant the beginning, quid sit quod, would have been forgotten in the length of the inserted propositions; and an orator, following the train of his feelings, would scarcely have proceeded by ego potissimum surrexerim, but would probably have found it necessary to take up the suspended construction with cur igitur ego potissimum surrexerim. See § 739. and § 756. [§ 816.] 19. In constructing a period, we must take care that the apodosis be not too short in proportion to the protasis, which would producé a disagreeable effect upon the ear. If, for example, we had the protasis Qui putat magnam doctrinam sine ingenio praeclaro, sine industria indefessa, sine libris optimis posse comparari, and were to close with errat, the disproportionately short apodosis would seem ridiculous; we ought either to have written unperiodically (though sufficiently well) errat qui putat ; or we ought to produce the necessary counterpoise by an enlargement of the idea errat, e. g. by saying magno vehementique errore ducitur. This requires a knowledge and command of words and phrases which is acquired from an accurate and attentive study of the authors. The Auct. ad Herenn. iv. 1. commences a periodic proposition thus: Quoniam in hoc libro de elocutione scripsimus, et, quibus in rebus exemplis opus fuit, usi sumus nostris, idque fecimus praeter consuetudinem eorum, qui de hac re scripserunt — and had in mind, then, to conclude with the apodosis ratio nostri consilii danda est. But in comparison with that protasis, his apodosis would have been too short; he therefore enlarges it thus; necessario faciendum putavimus ut paucis rationem nostri consilii demus. (Comp. § 619.) The following passages from Cicero may serve as examples of a pleasing and symmetrical structure of periods; de Leg. Agr. ii. 36.: Quemadmodum, quum petebam, nulli me vobis auctores generis mei commendarunt: sic, si quid deliquero, nullae sunt imagines, quae me a vobis deprecentur; in Cut. i. 13.: Ut saepe homines aegri morbo gravi, quum aestu febrique jactantur, si aquam gelidam biberint, primo relevari videntur, deinde multo gravius vehementiusque afflictantur: sic hic morbus, qui est in re publica, relevatus istius poena, vehementius, vivis reliquis, ingravescet; p. Caec. init.: Si, quantum in agro locisque desertis audacia potest, tantum in foro atque in judiciis impudentia valeret: non minus nunc in causa cederet A. Caecina Sex. Aebuti impudentiae, quam tum in vi facienda cessit audaciae. It is easy, in these periods, to see the accurate propriety with which the several propositions are separated and again connected by the adequate use of corresponding particles. [§ 817.] 20. We may here draw attention to the difference of periods in the historical and the oratorical style. Historical narrative requires above all things variety of the propositions containing statements of time: to form propositions possessing this quality, historians have recourse to three methods; the use of the participle in the case of the preceding noun; of the ablative absolute; and thirdly of the conjunctions of time, quum, ubi, postquam. By these means Livy can unite, without injury to perspicuity, in one period, what in English we must express by three or more propositions; e. g. Liv. i. 6.: Numitor, inter primum tumultum hostes invasisse urbem atque adortos regiam dictitans, quum pubem Albanam in arcem praesidio armisque obtinendam avocasset, postquam juvenes, perpetrata caede, pergere ad se gratulantes vidit, extemplo advocato consilio, scelera in se fratris, originem nepotum, ut geniti, ut educati, ut cogniti essent, caedem deinceps tyranni, seque ejus auctorem ostendit. Such a period is, perhaps, not to be found in all the writings of Cicero; but it is well adapted to express all collateral circumstances in their subordinate relation. In this way therefore most of the periods in Livy are constructed, though, of course, with many variations in the detail; Liv. ii. 6.: His, sicut acta erant, nuntiatis, incensus Tarquinius non dolore solum tantae ad irritum cadentis spei, sed etiam odio iraque, postquam dolo viam obseptam vidit, bellum aperte moliendum ratus, circumire supplex Etruriae urbes, &c. [§ 818.]. 21. A correct and ingenious arrangement of words, and an artistic construction of propositions, naturally produce in the delivery a symmetrical variety in the raising and sinking of the voice, which the ancients called oratorical numerus (¿voμós.) The rhetoricians reduced the effect thus produced to metrical feet, though we must not thereby be led to suppose that the orator set out with a premeditated view to use and apply certain metrical feet. The Greek and Latin languages possess the peculiarity of marking in their pronunciation the natural quan : tity of the syllables, along with and distinct from the accent of the words another peculiarity is their freedom in the arrangement of words, and it is the admirable result of a thorough rhetorical cultivation, especially of the Latin language, that a wellconstructed proposition in prose, such as we have considered in the preceding paragraphs, calls forth a natural variety in the raising and sinking of the voice, which otherwise is not to be met with but in poetical composition. There is, it is true, no strictly uniform return of any change; but the application of the principle, that an important word which by its prominent position draws the accent upon itself, is followed by a number of less important words expressive of secondary qualities or circumstances, which again are succeeded by an important word which forms the close of the proposition or period, produces the same effect the period has a beginning, a middle, and an end, and the words form a compact whole, as well as the thoughts they express. Thus, the orator need but follow the general law, and his prose will naturally be rhythmical and melodious. [§ 819.] Note. A regular verse in prose is considered by all rhetoricians as a fault, though a verse is occasionally found in good prose writers. Nay it seems as if at the commencement of a book or writing, as e. g. in Livy Facturusne operae pretium sim, a poetically measured start were aimed at. But an hexametrical close should certainly be avoided, especially in the combination of esse videtur ( ). This caution is the more necessary, as in the passive construction we readily fall into such a cadence. See my note on Cic. in Verr. ii. 9. Hiatus, that is, the concurrence of long vowels at the end of one word and the beginning of another, should be avoided as much as possible; for a concurrence of short vowels, or of a long vowel followed by a short one, objectionable. Comp. § 8. is not [§ 820.] 22. The language of the orator differs from common prose chiefly in the use of tropes and figures, for these terms denote modes of expression varying from the common form. These modes of expression when they consist in single words are called tropes; and when in propositions, figures. There are several tropes, i. e. modes by which one word is used for another for the sake of rhetorical variety and ornament: Metaphora or translatio, a contracted simile; e. g. segetes sitiunt, homo asper, fulmina eloquentiae; Synecdoche, when a part is mentioned instead of the whole, e. g. tectum for domus; Metonymia, when a thing is expressed by means of circum stances connected with it, e. g. segne otium; Vulcanus for ignis, Ceres for panis ; Antonomasia, substituting other nouns for a proper name, e. g. Romanae eloquentiae princeps, for Cicero; Karáɣpnois, the use of a word in an improper sense, when the language is in want of a proper or specific term; e. g. aedificare naves; and other tropes less applicable to the Latin language. The store of words and expressions which have come down to us and are collected in Dictionaries, must decide upon the degree of propriety and applicability of these tropes. [§ 821.] 23. The figures admit a greater freedom in their use. They are divided into figurae sententiarum and figurae verborum; the former are modes of conceiving and shaping an idea or thought, which differ from the common or vulgar mode; the latter have reference merely to a different expression of the same idea, and are therefore, as it were, transformations of the same body, A knowledge and practice in the use of figures is interesting and important even for the beginner, since in them lies the secret of the most admired portion of the rhetorical art; and, in fact, they are indispensable for the orator, although the essential part of his art consists in far different things, viz. the invention and adequate arrangement and disposition of his thoughts. The figurae verborum arise from addition, from resemblance of sound and form, and suppression. The following arise from addition;-geminatio, a doubling of words; e. g. Cic. in Verr. v. 62.: crux, crux inquam, misero et aerumnoso comparabatur;—¿πavaþopá, repetitio, repetition; i. e. when the several members of a proposition begin with the same word; e. g. Cic. in Cat. i. 1.: Nihilne te nocturnum praesidium Palatii, nihil urbis vigiliae, nihil timor populi, nihil consensus bonorum omnium, nihil hic munitissimus habendi senatus locus, nihil horum ora vultusque moverunt? Comp. p. Arch. 9. 21.; in Rull. ii. 6. The reverse (i. e. when the same word is used at the end of several members) is called ȧvτioтpopý, conversio. Complexio arises from a combination of repetitio and conversio; e. g. Cic. in Rull. ii. 9. Quis legem tulit? Rullus. majorem partem populi suffragiis prohibuit? Rullus. comitiis praefuit? Rullus. Quis decemviros quos voluit reTraductio, when a word from a nuntiavit? Idem Rullus. : Quis Quis preceding clause is repeated in the following, as in the Aut ad Her. iv. 14.: Eum tu hominem appellas, qui si fuisset homo, nunquam tam crudeliter vitam hominis petisset. — Пoλvoivderas, i. e. the repetition of the same conjunction; e. g. ad Her. is. 19. Et inimico proderas, et amicum laedebas, et tibi ipsi nen consulebas. Auct [§ 822.] From resemblance of sound and form, or symmetry, arise: Tаρоvoμaoía, annominatio, when words, with some resemblance of sound, are placed together or rather in opposition; e. g. Cic. in Verr. v. 10.: ut eum non facile non modo extra tectum, sed ne extra lectum quidem quisquam videret; in Cat. i. 12. hanc reip. pestem non paulisper reprimi, sed in perpetuum comprimi volo; de Off. i. 23.: expetenda magis est decernendi ratio, quam decertandi fortitudo. For more examples see my note on Cic. in Verr. iv. 5. 10.—OμolóπTWTOV, when the same cases are in several members of the proposition; and ÓμOLOTÉλEUTOV, when the members end similarly; e. g. both united appear in Cic. p. Clu. 6.: Vicit pudorem libido, timoren audacia, rationem amentia. Το these may be added ἰσοκωλον; i. e. when the members are of (about) equal length; e. g. ad Her. iv. 20. Alii fortuna felicitatem dedit, huic industria virtutem comparavit. Compare the quotation from Cic. p. Caecina, at the end of § 816.-'AvTi0eTov, opposition, requires this symmetry; e. g. Cic. p. Mil. 4.: Est igitur haec, judices, non scripta, sed nata lex, quam non didicimus, accepimus, legimus, verum ex natura ipsa arripuimus, hausimus, expressimus, ad quam non docti, sed facti, non instituti, sed imbuti sumus, ut, &c. Of a similar nature is avriμeraßoλn, commutatio, where the opposition is expressed by an inverted order of the proposition; e.g ad Her. iv. 28. Quia stultus es, ea re taces, non tamen quia taces, ea re stultus es; si poëma loquens pictura est, pictura tacitum poëma debet esse. If not the whole clause is inverted, this figure is called éπávodos, regressio; e. g. Cic. Brut. 39.: ut eloquentium juris peritissimus Crassus, juris peritorum eloquentissimus Scaevola haberetur. Lastly, kλipat, gradatio, i e gradation, at the same time repeating the preceding word; e.g ad Her. iv. 25.: Imperium Graeciae fuit penes Athenienses, Atheniensium potiti sunt Spartiatae, Spartiatas superavere bani, Thebanos Macedones vicerunt, qui ad imperium Graeciae brevi tempore adjunxerunt Asiam bello subactam. The |