Jane, fac aeternos pacem pacisque ministros! Ovid, Fast. Romani, si me scelus fratris, té senectus absumpserit, regem regnumque Macedoniae sua futura sciunt, Liv. xl. 10.

Or the predicate (adjective, participle, or pronoun), agrees only with one of the nouns, and is supplied by the mind for the others; this is the case especially, when the subject consists of nouns denoting living beings and things.

Thrasybulus contemptus est primo a tyrannis atque ejus solitudo, Nep. Thras. 2.

L. Brutus exulem et regem ipsum, et liberos ejus, et gentem Tarquiniorum esse jussit, Cic. De Re Publ. ii.

Hominis utilitati agri omnes et maria parent, Cic.

Nunc emergit amor, nunc desiderium ferre non possum, nunc mihi nihil libri, nihil litterae, nihil doctrina prodest: ita dies et noctes tamquam avis illa, mari prospecto, evolare cupio, Cic. ad Att. ix. 10. 2.

[§ 377.] Note. We have not mentioned the case of a subject consisting of living beings of the feminine and neuter genders; e. g. soror tua et ejus mancipium. No instance of such a combination occurs, but we should be obliged to make the predicate; e. g. inventae or inventi sunt, according as mancipium may denote a male or female slave. The grammatical preference of the masculine gender to the feminine is clear also from the fact of the mascul. words filii, fratres, soceri, reges, comprising persons of both sexes; as in Livy legati missi sunt ad Ptolemaeum Cleopatramque reges; Tac. Ann. xii. 4. fratrum incustoditum amorem, in speaking of a brother and his sister. The following examples of the predicate being in the neuter gender, when the subject consists of nouns denoting things, may be added to those already quoted. Sallust: divitiae, decus, gloria in oculis sita sunt; Livy: Formiis portam murumque de coelo tacta esse; Merico urbs et ager in Sicilia jussa dari; and so also with the relative pronoun; Sallust: otium atque divitiae, quae prima mortales putant. The neuter is further not unfrequently used when the two nouns of the subject (denoting things) are of the same gender; e. g. Liv. xxxvii. 32.: postquam ira et avaritia imperio potentiora erant; Cic. de Nat. Deor. iii. 24.: fortunam nemo ab inconstantia et temeritate sejunget, quae digna certe non sunt deo. Those passages, on the other hand, in which the subject consists of names of things of different gender, and the predicate agrees in gender with a more distant masc. or femin., must be considered as exceptions; but in such cases the noun with which the predicate agrees is usually the more prominent, the other or others being considered as dependent or subordinate; e. g. Plancus in Cic. ad Fam. x. 24.: Amor tuus ac judicium de me utrum mihi plus dignitatis an voluptatis sit allaturus, non facile dixerim; i. e. thy love, and thy favourable opinion of me, which is the result of it; Cic. de Leg. i. 1:: Lucus ille et haec Arpinatium quercus agnoscitur, saepe a me lectus in Mario, the oak being only a part of the grove. See the commentators (Wesenberg) on Cic. p. Sext. 53., and on Suet. Caes. 75.

[§ 378.] 7. When the personal pronouns ego, tu, nos, vos,

combined with one or more other nouns form the subject of a proposition, the predicate follows the first person in preference to the second and third, and the second in preference to the third. Si tu et Tullia, lux nostra, valetis, ego et suavissimus Cicero valemus, Cic. Ad Fam. xiv. 5.

Quid est quod tu aut illa cum Fortuna hoc nomine queri possitis, Sulpic. in Cic. Ad Fam. iv. 5.

Note. So also Cic. in Verr. i. 45.: hoc jure et majores nostri et nos semper usi sumus; in Rull. i. 7.: Errastis, Rulle, vehementer et tu et nonnulli collegae tui. But in this case also the predicate frequently agrees with one of the subjects, and is supplied by the mind for the others; e. g. Cicero: Vos ipsi et senatus frequens restitit; et ego et Cicero meus flagitabit. With regard to the relative pronoun, the above rule remains in force, and we must accordingly say: tu et pater, qui in convivio eratis; ego et tu, qui eramus.

II. ON THE USE OF CASES.

CHAP. LXX.

NOMINATIVE CASE.

[379.] 1. THE subject of a proposition is in the nominative (see § 362.), and the noun of the predicate only when it is connected with the subject by the verb esse and similar verbs: apparere, appear; existere, fieri, evadere, come into existence, become; videri, seem, appear; manere, remain; or the passives of the actives mentioned in § 394; viz. dici, appellari, existimari, haberi, &c.; e. g. justus videbatur, he appeared just; rex appellabatur, he was called king. The personal pronouns ego, tu, ille, nos, vos, and illi are implied in the terminations of the verb, and are expressed only when they denote emphasis or opposition. (In) rebus angustis animosus atque fortis appare, Horat. Carm. ii. 10. 21.

Appius adeo novum sibi ingenium induerat, ut plebicola repente omnisque aurae popularis captator evaderet, Liv. iii. 33. Ego reges ejeci, vos tyrannos introducitis; ego libertatem, quae non erat, peperi, vos partam servare non vultis, says L. Brutus in the Auct. ad Herenn. iv. 53.

Note 1. The construction of the accusative with the infinitive is the only case in which the subject is not in the nominative, but in the accusative.

(See § 599.) In this case the predicate, with the above-mentioned verbs, is likewise in the accusative.

[$380.] Note 2. Videri is used throughout as a personal verb, as (ego) videor, (tu) videris, &c.; vir bonus esse; videmur, videmini viri boni esse, or hoc fecisse. The impersonal construction is sometimes found, as in Cic. Tusc. v. 5.: Non mihi videtur, ad beate vivendum satis posse virtutem (comp. Davis' remark), but much more rarely than the personal one. When connected with the dative of a person, it is equivalent to the English "to think or fancy;” e. g. amens mihi fuisse videor; fortunatus sibi Damocles videbatur (esse); si hoc tibi intellexisse videris, or even in connection with videre; e. g. videor mihi videre imminentes reipublicae tempestates, &c. It should however be observed that the dative of the first person is sometimes omitted; e. g. Cic. de Nat. Deor. ii. 61.: satis docuisse videor; ibid. i. 21.: saepe de L. Crasso videor audisse; de Fin. ii. 5.: cum Graece, ut videor, luculenter sciam, i. e. as it seems to me, or as I think.

[§ 381.] 2. The nominative is sometimes not expressed in Latin. Thus the word homines is understood with a verb in the third person plural active, in such phrases as laudant hunc regem, they, or people praise this king; dicunt, tradunt, ferunt hunc regem esse justum, people say that this king is just.

CHAP. LXXI.

ACCUSATIVE CASE.

[§ 382.] 1. THE accusative denotes the object of an action, and is therefore joined to all transitive verbs, whether active or deponent, to express the person or thing affected by the action implied in such verbs; e. g. pater amat (tuetur) filium. When the verb is active, the same proposition may be expressed without change of meaning in the passive voice, the object or accusative becoming the subject or nominative; thus instead of pater amat filium, we may say filius amatur a patre.

The transitive or intransitive nature of a verb depends entirely upon its meaning (see § 142.), which must be learned from the dictionary. It must however be observed that many Latin verbs may acquire a transitive meaning, besides the original intransitive one, and accordingly govern the accusative.

[$ 383.] Note 1. Some verbs are called transitive and others intransitive, according as they occur more frequently in the one sense or the other. All particulars must be learned from the Dictionary. Ludere, to play, for example, is naturally an intransitive, but has a transitive meaning in the sense

of "play the part of;" e. g. ludit bonum civem, he plays the good citizen, affects to be a good citizen. Horrere properly signifies "to feel a shudder," and fastidire "to be disgusted with," but both are frequently used as transitives: horrere dolorem, fastidire preces or mores alicujus, to dread pain, to reject a person's petition, to be disgusted with his manners. There are several other such verbs, as dolere, gemere, lamentari, lugere, maerere, lacrimare, plorare; e. g. casum hunc. Festinare and properare, moreover, signify not only "to hasten," but "to accelerate;" e. g. mortem suam; manere not only "to wait," but "to expect;" e. g. hostium adventum; ridere, to laugh and to ridicule (like irridere). Such examples being sanctioned by usage, the Latin writers, in some cases, extended the principle still further, and Cicero (de Fin. ii. 34.) has the bold, but beautiful and expressive, phrase: Quum Xerxes, Hellesponto juncto, Athone perfosso, mare ambulavisset, terram navigasset, instead of the ordinary expression in mari ambulavisset, in terra navigasset. In such phrases as dormio totam hiemem, tertiam aetatem vivo, noctes vigilo, the accusative might seem to express only duration of time (§ 395.), but as the passive forms also occur, tota mihi dormitur hiems, jam tertia vivitur aetas, noctes vigilantur amarae, it will be more judicious to consider the verbs dormire, vivere, vigilare, in those cases as transitives, equivalent to "spend in sleeping, living, waking."

The words which denote "to smell" or "taste of any thing," viz. olere, redolere, sapere, resipere, are in the same manner used as transitive verbs, and joined with an accusative (instead of the ablative which they would require as intransitive verbs). Their meaning in this case is "to give back the smell or taste of any thing;" e. g. olet unguenta; piscis ipsum mare sapit; unguenta gratiora sunt, quae,terram, quam quae crocum sapiant; uva picem resipiens, and in a figurative sense: olet peregrinum, redolet antiquitatem; together with such expressions as, anhelat crudelitatem, pingue quiddam et peregrinum sonat, sanguinem nostrum sitiebat. The poets go still further, and use, e. g., pallere, pavere, tremere, trepidare aliquid, instead of timere; ardere, calere, tepere, perire, deperire mulierem, instead of amare mulierem. Such expressions should not be imitated in prose, any more than the use of a neuter adjective instead of an adverb; as in: torvum clamare, tremendum sonare, lucidum fulgent oculi, concerning which see § 266. Tacitus however says, Ann. iv. 60.: Tiberius falsum renidens vultu; and vi. 37.: Euphraten nulla imbrium vi sponte et immensum attolli.

[§ 384.] We must here mention a peculiar mode of joining an accusative with intransitive verbs, which is of frequent occurrence in Greek and also in English. It consists of a substantive of the same root as the verb, or at least one of the same meaning, being added in the accusative; but this substantive is usually qualified by an adjective; e. g. vitam jucundam vivere; longam viam ire, hoc bellum bellare, gravem pugnam (proelium) pugnare, alterius gaudium gaudere, bonas preces precari, risum Sardonium ridere, consimilem ludum ludere, servitutem servire durissimam, somnium somniare.

(Odi) qui Curios simulant et Bacchanalia vivunt. — Juven. ii. 3.

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[§ 385.] But even without any change or modification of meaning, intransitive verbs may have the accusative of pronouns and adjective pronouns in the neuter gender, in order to express, in a general way, the direction in which a feeling or condition is manifested; if this tendency were expressed more definitely by a substantive, the accusative could not be used. We thus frequently find such phrases as: hoc laetor, I rejoice at this; hoc non dubito,

I do not doubt this; hoc laboro, illud tibi non assentior, aliquid tibi succenseo, non possum idem gloriari, unum omnes student, where the accusative of a definite substantive, such as, hanc unam rem omnes student, could not have been used. Sq Terence says: id operam do, I strive after this; Cicero, ad Fam. vi. 8.: consilium petis, quid tibi sim auctor; and Livy often uses the phrase quod quidam auctores sunt, which is attested by some authors.

Dolores autem nunquam tantam vim habent, ut non plus habeat sapiens quod gaudeat quam quod angatur, Cic. de Fin. i. 14.

Utrumque laetor, et sine dolore corporis te fuisse et animo valuisse, Cic. ad Fam. vii. 1.

Note 2. The rule that in the change of a proposition from the active into the passive form the accusative of the object becomes the nominative of the subject, remains in force even when after the verbs denoting "to say" or "command" the accusative does not depend upon these verbs, but belongs to the construction of the accusative with an infinitive; e. g. dico regem esse justum, jubeo te redire (see § 607.); in the passive: rex dicitur justus esse, juberis redire, as though dico regem or jubeo te belonged to each other.

[§ 386.] 2. Intransitive verbs which imply motion, as ire, vadere, volare, and some also which imply "being in a place," as jacere, stare and sedere, acquire a transitive meaning by being compounded with a preposition, and accordingly govern the accusative. This, however, is generally the case only in verbs compounded with the prepositions circum, per, praeter, trans, and super, and in those compound verbs which have acquired a figurative meaning. Such verbs become perfect transitives, and the accusative which they take in the active form of a proposition as their object, becomes the nominative of the subject, when the proposition is changed into the passive form; e. g. flumen transitur, societas initur, mors pro republica obitur. With other compounds the accusative is only tolerated, for generally the preposition is repeated, or the dative is used instead of the preposition with its case (§ 415.).

Amicitia nonnunquam praecurrit judicium, Cic. Lael. 17.

Nihil est turpius quam cognitioni et praeceptioni assensionem praecurrere, Cic. Acad. i. 12.

Note. The rule here given applies to a great number of verbs, for there are many which imply motion, as, ire, ambulare, cedere, currere, equitare, fluere, gradi, labi, nare, and natare, repere, salire, scandere, vadere, vehi, volare, and perhaps also venire, and their compounds are very numerous. The following is a list of them: adire, accedere, adequitare, adnare, aggredi, allabi, ascendere, assilire and assultare, advenire and adventare, advehi, advolare, advolvi, anteire, antecedere, antecurrere, antegredi, antevenire, circumfluere, circumire, circumvenire, circumvolare, coire, convenire, egredi, elabi, erumpere, evadere, excedere, exire, inire, incedere, incurrere and incursare, ingredi, illabi, innare and innatare, insilire, insultare, invehi, interfluere, intervenire, invadere