these we must add, but merely with reference to the participle of the preterite, the verbs jurare, coenare, prandere, and potare, of which the participles juratus, coenatus, pransus, and potus, have, like those of deponents, the signification:- one that has sworn, dined, breakfasted and drunk. The same is the case with some other intransitive verbs, which as such ought not to have a participle of the preterite at all; but still we sometimes find conspiratus and coalitus, and frequently adultus and obsoletus (grown up and obsolete) in an active, but intransitive sense, and the poets use cretus (from cresco), like natus. [§ 149.] THERE are four general modes (moods, modi), in which an action or condition expressed by a verb may be represented: -1) Simply as a fact, though the action or condition may differ in regard to its relation and to time: this is the Indicative; 2) As an action or condition which is merely conceived by the mind, though with the same differences as the indicative, Conjunctive, or Subjunctive; 3) As a command, Imperative; 4) Indefinitely, without defining any person by whom, or the time at which, the action is performed, although the relation of the action is defined, Infinitive. A [$ 150.] To these moods we may add the Participle which is, in form, an adjective, but is more than an adjective by expressing at the same time the different relations of the action or suffering, that is, whether it is still lasting or terminated. third participle, that of the future, expresses an action which is going to be performed, or a condition which is yet to come. The Gerund, which is in form like the neuter of the participle passive in dus, supplies by its cases the place of the infinitive present active. The two Supines are cases of verbal substantives, and likewise serve in certain connections (which are explained in the syntax) to supply the cases for the infinitive. When an action or condition is to be expressed as a definite and individual fact, either in the indicative or subjunctive, we must know whether it belongs to the past, the present, or the future, or in one word, its time, and time is expressed in a verb by its Tenses. We must further know its position in the series of actions with which it is connected, that is, the relation of the action, viz. whether it took place while another was going on, or whether it was terminated before another began. If we connect these considerations, we shall obtain the following six tenses of the verb: An action not terminated in the present time; I write, scribo: Present tense. An action not terminated in the past time; I wrote, scribebam: Imperfect tense. An action not terminated in the future; I shall write, scribam: Future tense. An action terminated in the present time; I have written, scripsi: Perfect tense. An action terminated in the past time; I had written, scripseram : Pluperfect tense. An action terminated in the future; I shall have written, scripsero: Future perfect tense. The same number of tenses occurs in the passive voice, but those which express the terminated state of an action can be formed only by circumlocution, with the participle and the auxiliary verb esse: scribor, scribebar, scribar, scriptus sum, scriptus eram, scriptus ero. The subjunctive has no future tenses: respecting the manner in which their place is supplied, see § 496. The infinitive by itself does not express time, but only the relation of an action, that is, whether it is completed or not completed. By circumlocution we obtain also an infinitive for an action or a suffering which is yet to come. [§ 151.] THE Latin verb has two numbers, singular and plural, and in each number three persons. These three persons, I, the one speaking, thou, the one spoken to, and he or she, the one spoken of, are not expressed in Latin by special words, but are implied in the forms of the verb itself. The same is the case in the plural with we, you, they, and these personal pronouns are added to the verb only when the person is to be indicated in an emphatic manner. The following is a general scheme of the changes in termination, according to the persons, both in the indicative and subjunctive: The termination of the first person singular cannot be stated in a simple or general way, since it sometimes ends in o, sometimes in m, and sometimes in i (see the following Chapter). In the second person singular the perfect indicative forms an exception, for it ends in ti. Respecting the vowel which precedes these terminations, nothing general can be said, except that it is a in the imperfect and pluperfect indicative. This, however, does not apply to those tenses of the passive, which are formed by a combination of the participle with a tense of the verb esse. The imperative in the active and passive has two forms, viz. for that which is to be done at once, and for that which is to be done in future, or an imperative present and an imperative future. Neither of them has a first person, owing to the nature of the imperative. The imperative present has only a second person, both in the singular and plural; the imperative future has the second and the third persons, but in the singular they have both the same form, to in the active, and tor in the passive voice. The imperative future passive, on the other hand, has no second person plural, which is supplied by the future of the indicative, e. g. laudabimini. CHAP. XL. FORMATION OF THE TENSES. [S 152.] 1. THERE are in Latin four conjugations, distinguished by the infinitive mood, which ends thus: 1. āre. 2. ēre. 3. ĕre. 4. ire. The present indicatives of these conjugations end in: 1. o, ās. 2. čo, ēs. 3. o, is. 4. io, is. Note. Attention must be paid to the difference of quantity in the termination of the second person in the third and fourth conjugations, in order to distinguish the presents of the verbs in io, which follow the third conjugation, e.g. fodio, fugio, capio (see Chap. XLVI.), from those verbs which follow the fourth, such as audio, erudio. This difference between the long and short i remains also in the other persons, with the exception of the third singular, which is short in all the four conjugations; e. g. legimus, legitis; audimus, auditis; for when i is followed by another vowel, it is short according to the general rule that one vowel before another is short. The long a was mentioned above as the characteristic of the first conjugation, but the verb dăre is an exception, for the a here is not a mere part of the termination as in laudāre, but belongs to the stem of the word. The syllable da in this verb is short throughout, dămus, dătis, dăbam, &c., with the only exception of the monosyllabic forms dās and dā. [§ 153.] 2. In order to obtain the forms of the other tenses, we must further know the perfect and the supine; for the three tenses of the completed action in the active are derived from the perfect; and the participle perfect passive, which is necessary for the formation of the same tenses in the passive, is derived from the supine. These four principal forms, viz. Present, Perfect, Supine, and Infinitive, end thus: Note. We have here followed the example of all Latin grammars and of the Roman grammarians themselves, in regarding the supine as one of the main forms, that must be known in order to derive others from it. But the beginner must beware of supposing that the two participles, of the perfect passive and the future active, are derived in the same manner from the supine as, for example, the pluperfect is from the perfect; and that the supine exists in all the verbs to which one is attributed in the dictionary or grammar. The whole derivation is merely formal; and the supine in fact occurs very rarely. But its existence is presupposed on account of the two participles which do occur, in order to show the changes which the stem of the verb undergoes. If we were to mention the participle of the perfect passive instead of the supine, we should do little better, since it is wanting in all intransitive verbs, though they may have the participle future active; and again, if we were to mention the future participle, we should find the same difficulty, for it cannot be proved to exist in all verbs, and in addition to this we ought not to mention among the main forms of the verb one which is obviously a derivative form. In dictionaries it would be necessary to mention, first the participle perfect, or where it does not occur, the participle future active; but if, as is the case in a grammar, we have to show in one form that which is the basis of several changes, a third form is necessary, and it is best to acquiesce in the supine. In making use of the list which will be given hereafter, the beginner must always bear in mind, that the supine is scarcely ever mentioned for its own sake, but merely to enable him to form those two participles correctly. 3. With regard to the first, second, and fourth conjugations, no particular rule is needed as to how the perfect and supine are formed. According to the above scheme they are: 1. laud-o, laud-avi, laud-atum, laud-are. 2. mon-eo, mon-ui, mon-itum, mon-ēre. [§ 154.] 4. But in the third conjugation the formation of the perfect and supine presents some difficulty. The following general rules therefore must be observed (for the details, see the list of verbs of the third conjugation). When the termination of the infinitive ĕre, or the o of the present tense, is preceded by a vowel, the forms of the perfect and supine are simply those mentioned above, that is, i and tum are added to the stem of the verb, or to that portion of the verb which remains after the removal of the termination, e. g. acuěre, acu-o, acu-i, acu-tum. The vowel becomes long in the supine, even when it is otherwise short. So also in minuo, statuo, tribuo, and solvo, solutum, for v before a consonant is a vowel. But when the o of the present is preceded by a consonant, the perfect ends in si. The s in this termination is changed into a when it is preceded by c, g, h, or qu (which is equal to c); when it is preceded by b, this letter is changed into p; if d precedes, one of the two consonants must give way, and either the d is dropped, which is the ordinary practice, or the s; e. g. duco, duxi; rego, rexi; traho, traxi; coquo, coxi; scribo, scripsi; claudo, clausi, but defendo, defendi. Verbs in po pre |