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and in moving, especially the fofter paffions, he is very fuccefsful. No man, that ever wrote, knew the power and force of words better than Cicero. He rolls them along with the greatest beauty and pomp; and in the ftructure of his fentences, is curious and exact to the highest degree. He is always full and flowing, never ab. rupt. He is a great amplifier of every fabject; magnificent, and in his fentiments highly moral. His manner is on the whole diffufe, yet it is often happily varied, and fuited to the fubject. In his four orations, for inftance, against Catiline, the tone and ftyle of each of them, particularly the first and laft, is very different, and accommodated with a great deal of judgment to the occafion, and the fituation in which they were spoken. When a great public object roused his mind, and demanded indignation and force, he departs confiderably from that loose and declamatory manner to which he inclines at other times, and becomes exceedingly cogent and vehement. This is the cafe in his orations against Anthony, and in thofe too against Verres and Catiline. Blair.

72. Defects of CICERO.

Together with thofe high qualities which Cicero poffeffes, he is not exempt from certain defects, of which it is neceffary to take notice. For the Ciceronian Eloquence is a pattern fo dazzling by its beauties, that, if not examined with accuracy and judgment, it is apt to betray the unwary into a faulty imitation; and I am of opinion, that it has fometimes produced this effect. In moft of his orations, especially thofe compofed in the earlier part of his life, there is too much art; even carried the length of oftentation. There is too vifible a parade of eloquence. He feems often to aim at obtaining admiration, rather than at operating conviction, by what he fays. Hence, on fome occafions, he is fhowy, rather than folid; and diffuse, where he ought to have been preffing. His fentences are, at all times, round and fonorous; they cannot be accused of monotony, for they poffefs variety of cadence; but, from too great a study of magnificence, he is fometimes deficient in ftrength. On all occafions, where there is the leaft room for it, he is full of himself. His great actions, and the real fervices which he had performed to his country, apologize for this in part; ancient manners, too, impofed fewer re

ftraints from the fide of decorum; but, even after these allowances made, Cicero's oftentation of himself cannot be wholly palliated; and his orations, indeed all his works, leave on our minds the impreffion of a good man, but withal, of a vain man.

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The defects which we have now taken notice of in Cicero's eloquence, were not unobferved by his own cotemporaries. This we learn from Quinctilian, and from the author of the dialogue, "de Caufis "Corruptæ Eloquentiæ." Brutus we are informed called him, "fractum et "elumbem,” broken and enervated. "Suorum temporum homines," says Quinctilian, "inceffere audebant eum ut "tumidiorem & Afianum, et redundan"tem, et in repetitionibus nimium, et in "falibus aliquandò frigidum, & in compofitione fractum et exultantem, & pe "nè viro molliorem." Thefe cenfures were undoubtedly carried too far; and favour of malignity and perfonal enmity. They faw his defects, but they aggravated them; and the fource of thefe aggravations can be traced to the difference which prevailed in Rome, in Cicero's days, be tween two great parties, with respect to eloquence, the "Attici," and the « A«fiani." The former, who called them felves the Attics, were the patrons of what they conceived to be the chafte, fimple, and natural style of eloquence; from which they accufed Cicero as having departed, and as leaning to the florid Afiatic manner. In feveral of his rhetorical works, particularly in his "Orator ad Brutum," Cicero, in his turn, endeavours to expofe this fect, as fubftituting a frigid and jejune manner, in place of the true Attic eloquence; and contends, that his own com→ pofition was formed upon the real Attic Style. In the tenth Chapter of the last Book of Quintilian's Inftitutions, a full account is given of the difputes between these two parties; and of the Rhodian, or middle manner between the Attics and the Afiatics. Quinctilian himself declares on Cicero's fide; and, whether, it be Attic or Afiatic, prefers the full, the copious, and the amplifying style. He concludes with this very juft obfervation: "Plures "funt eloquentiæ facies; fed ftultiffimum

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§ 73. Comparison of CICERO and
DEMOSTHENES.

On the fubject of comparing Cicero and Demofthenes, much has been faid by critical writers. The different manners of thefe two princes of eloquence, and the distinguishing characters of each, are fo ftrongly marked in their writings, that the comparison is, in many refpects, obvious and eafy. The character of Demofthenes is vigour and aufterity; that of Cicero is gentleness and infinuation. In the one, you find more manlinefs; in the other, more ornament. The one is more harsh, but more fpirited and cogent; the other more agreeable, but withal, loofer and

weaker.

To account for this difference, without any prejudice to Cicero, it has been faid, that we must look to the nature of their different auditories; that the refined Athenians followed with eafe the concife and convincing eloquence of Demofthenes; but that a manner more popular, more flowery, and declamatory, was requifite in fpeaking to the Romans, a people lefs acute, and lefs acquainted with the arts of fpeech. But this is not fatisfactory. For we must obferve, that the Greek orator spoke much oftener before a mixed multitude, than the Roman. Almoft all the public bufinefs of Athens was tranfacted in popular affemblies. The common people were his hearers, and his judges. Whereas Cicero generally addrefled himself to the " Patres Confcripti," or, in criminal trials, to the Prætor, and the Select Judges; and it cannot be imagined, that the perfons of highest rank and beft education in Rome, required a more diffufe manner of pleading than the common citizens of Athens, in order to make them understand the caufe, or relish the fpeaker. Perhaps we fhall come nearer the truth, by obferving, that to unite toge

"Eloquence admits of many different forms; "and nothing can be more foolish than to en"quire, by which of them an orator is to regu"late his compofition; fince every form, which

is in itself juft, has its own place and ufe. "The Orator, according as circumftances re"quire, will employ them all; fuiting them not "only to the caufe or fubject of which he treats, "but to the different parts of that fubject."

ther all the qualities, without the leaft ex ception, that form a perfect orator, and to excel equally in each of thofe qualities, is not to be expected from the limited powers of human genius. The highest degree of ftrength is, I fufpect, never found united with the highest degree of fmoothness and ornament: equal attentions to both are

incompatible; and the genius that carries ornament to its utmoft length, is not of fuch a kind, as can excel as much in viteriftical difference between these two cegour. For there plainly lies the characlebrated orators.

It is a difadvantage to Demofthenes, that, befides his concifenefs, which fometimes produces obfcurity, the language, in which he writes, is lefs familiar to most of us than the Latin, and that we are lefs acquainted with the Greek antiquities than we are with the Roman. We read Cicero with more eafe, and of courfe with more

pleafure. Independent of this circumstance

too, he is no doubt, in himself, a more agreeable writer than the other. But notwithstanding this advantage, I am of opinion, that were the ftate in danger, or fome great public intereft at stake, which drew the ferious attention of men, an oration in the fpirit and ftrain of Demofthenes would have more weight, and produce greater effects, than one in the Ciceronian manner. Were Demofthenes's Philippics fpoken in a British affembly, in a fimilar conjuncture of affairs, they would convince and perfuade at this day. The rapid style, the vehement reafoning, the disdain, anger, boldnefs, freedom, which perpetually animate them, would render their fuccefs infallible over any modern aftembly. I queftion whether the fame can be faid of Cicero's orations; whofe eloquence, however beautiful, and however well fuited to the Roman tafte, yet borders oftener on declamation, and is more remote from the manner in which we now expect to hear real bufinefs and caufes of importance treated *.

In comparing Demofthenes and Cicero, most of the French critics incline to give the preference to the latter. P. Rapin the Jefuit, in the parallels which he has drawn between fome of the moft eminent Greek

In this judgment I concur with Mr. David Hume, in his Effay upon Eloquence. He gives it as his opinion, that, of all human productions, the Orations of Demofthenes pretent to us the models which approach the nearest to perfec

tion.

and

and Roman writers, uniformly decides in favour of the Roman. For the preference which he gives to Cicero, he affigns, and lays stress on one reafon of a pretty extraordinary nature; viz. that Demofthenes could not poffibly have fo complete an infight as Cicero into the manners and paffions of men; Why?-Because he had not the advantage of perufing Ariftotle's treatife of Rhetoric, wherein, fays our critic, he has fully laid open that mystery: and, to fupport this weighty argument, he enters into a controverfy with A. Gellius, in order to prove that Ariftotle's Rhetoric was not published till after Demofthenes had spoken, at least, his molt confiderable orations. Nothing can be more childish. Such orators as Cicero and Demofthenes, derived their knowledge of the human paffions, and their power of moving them, from higher fources than any treatife of rhetoric, One French critic has indeed departed from the common track; and, after beftowing on Cicero thofe juft praifes, to which the confent of fo many ages fhews him to be entitled, concludes, how. ever, with giving the palm to Demofthenes. This is Fenelon, the famous archbishop of Cambray, and author of Telemachus; himself, furely, no enemy to all the graces and flowers of compofition. It is in his Reflections on Rhetoric and Poetry, that he gives this judgment; a fmall tract, commonly published along with his Dialogues on Eloquence. Thefe dialogues and reflections are particularly worthy of perufal, as containing, I think,

As his expreffions are remarkably happy and beautiful, the paffage here referred to deferves to be inferted. Je ne crains pas dire, "que Demofthene me paroit fupérieur a Cicé"ron. Je proteite que perfonne n'admire plus Cicéron que je fais. Il embellit tout ce qu'il "touche. Il fait honneur à la parole. 11 fait des mots ce qu'un autre n'en fauroit faire. I "a je ne fai combien de fortes d'efprits. Il eft "même court, & vehement, toutes les fois qu'il "veut l'eftre; contre Catiline, contre Verres, contre Antoine. Mais on remarque quelque "parure dans fons difcours. L'art y eft merveil"leux; mais on l'entrevoit. L'orateur en pen"fant au falut de ia république, ne s'oublie pas, "et ne fe laiffe pas oublier. Demofthene paroit fortir de foi, et ne voir que la patrie. I ne cherche point le beau; il le fait, fans y "penfer. Il eft au-deffus de l'admiration. Il fe fert de la parole, comme un homme modefte "de fon habit, pour fe couvrir. I tonne; il foudroye. C'eft un torrent qui entraine tout. On ne peut le critiquer, parcequ'on eft faifi. "On penfe aux chofes qu'il dit, & non à fes pa

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the jufteft ideas on the subject, that are to be met with in any modern critical writer, Blair.

$74. On the Means of improving in ELOQUENCE

Next to moral qualifications, what, in the fecond place, is molt necessary to an orator, is a fund of knowledge. Much is this inculcated by Cicero and Quinctilian :

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Quod omnibus difciplinis et artibus de"bet effe inftru&tus Orator." By which they mean, that he ought to have what we call a Liberal Education; and to be formed by a regular ftudy of philofophy, and the polite arts. We must never forget that,

Scribendi rectè, fapere eft & principium & fons, Good fenfe and knowledge are the foundation of all good speaking. There is no art that can teach one to be eloquent, in any fphere, without a fufficient acquaintance with what belongs to that sphere; or if there were an art that made fuch pretenfions, it would be mere quackery, like the pretenfions of the fophifts of old, to teach their difciples to fpeak for and against every subject; and would be defervedly exploded by all wife men. Attention to ftyle, to compofition, and all the arts of fpeech, can only affift an orator in setting off, to advantage, the ftock of materials which he poffeffes; but the ftock, the materials themfelves, must be brought from other quarters than from rhetoric. He who is to plead at the bar, muft make himself thoroughly mafter of the knowledge of the law; of all the learning and experience that can be useful in his profeffion, for fupporting a caufe, or convincing a judge. He who is to fpeak from the pulpit, muft apply himfelf clofely to the study of divinity, of practical religion, of morals, of human nature; that he may be rich in all the topics both of inftruction and of perfuafion. He who would fit himself for being a member of the fupreme council of the nation, or of any public affembly, must be thoroughly acquainted with the bufinefs that belongs to fuch affembly; he must

"roles. On le perd de vue. On n'eft occupé 64 que de Philippe qui envahit tout. Je fuis "charmé de ces deux orateurs: mais j'avoue que "je fuis moins touché de l'art infini, & de la "magnifique éloquence de Cicéron, que de la "rapide fimplicité de Demofthene."

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Atudy

study the forms of court, the courfe of procedure; and must attend minutely to all the facts that may be the fubject of queftion or deliberation.

Befides the knowledge that properly belongs to that profeffion to which he addicts himself, a public fpeaker, if ever he expects to be eminent, must make himself acquainted, as far as his neceffary occupations allow, with the general circle of polite literature. The study of poetry may be useful to him on many occafions, for embellishing his ftyle, for fuggefting lively images, or agreeable allufions. The ftudy of hiftory may be ftill more useful to him; as the knowledge of facts, of eminent charac ters, and of the course of human affairs, finds place on many occafions. There are few great occafions of public fpeaking, in which one will not derive affiftance from cultivated tafte, and extenfive knowledge. They will often yield him materials for proper ornament; fometimes, for argument and real ufe. A deficiency of knowledge, even in fubjects that belong not directly to his own profeffion, will expofe him to many difadvantages, and give better qualified rivals a great fuperiority over him. Blair.

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Allow me to recommend, in the third place, not only the attainment of ufeful knowledge, but a habit of application and induftry. Without this, it is impoffible to excel in any thing. We must not imagine, that it is by a fort of mushroom growth, that one can rife to be a distinguished pleader, or preacher, or speaker in any affembly. It is not by ftarts of application, or by a few years preparation of tudy afterwards difcontinued, that eminence can be attained. No; it can be attained only by means of regular induftry, grown up into a habit, and ready to be exerted on every occafion that calls for induftry. This is the fixed law of our nature; and he must have a very high opinion of his own genius indeed, that can believe himself an exception to it. A very

"Imprimis verò, abundare debet Orator ex"emplorum copiâ, cum veterum, tum etiam no

❝vorum; adeò ut non modò quæ confcripta funt

hiftoriis, aut fermonibus velut per manus tradita, quæque quotidie aguntur, debeat nôffe; "verum ne ea quidem quæ a clarioribus poëtis ❝ funt ficta negligere." QUINCT. L. xii. Cap. 4.

wife law of our nature it is; for industry is, in truth, the great "Condimentum," the feafoning of every pleasure; without which life is doomed to languish. Nothing is fo great an enemy both to honourable attainments, and to the real, to the brifk, and fpirited enjoyment of life, as that relaxed ftate of mind which arifes from indolence and diffipation. One that is deftined to excel in any art, especially in the arts of fpeaking and writing, will be known by this more than by any other mark whatever, an enthufiafm for that art; an enthufiafm, which, firing his mind with the object he has in view, will difpose him to relish every labour which the means require, It was this that characterised the great men of antiquity; it is this, which muft diftinguish the moderns who would tread in their fteps. This honourable enthufiafm, it is highly neceffary for fuch as are ftudying oratory to cultivate. If youth wants it, manhood will flag miferably.

Ibid.

76. Attention to the best Models recommended to the Student in Eloquence.

Attention to the best models will contri. bute greatly towards improvement. Every one who speaks or writes fhould, indeed, endeavour to have fomewhat that is his own, that is peculiar to himself, and that characterifes his compofition and style. Slavifh imitation depreffes genius, or rather betrays the want of it. But withal, there is no genius fo original, but may be profited and affifted by the aid of proper examples, in ftyle, compofition, and delivery. They always open fome new ideas; they ferve to enlarge and correct our own, They quicken the current of thought, and excite emulation.

Ibid.

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Much, indeed, will depend upon the right choice of models which we purpose to imitate; and fuppofing them rightly chofen, a farther care is requifite, of not being feduced by a blind universal admi ration. For, "decipit exemplar, vitiis imi"tabile." Even in the most finished models we can felect, it must not be forgotten, that there are always fome things improper for imitation. We should study to acquire a juft conception of the peculiar characteristic beauties of any writer, or public fpeaker, and imitate thefe only. One

ought

ought never to attach himself too clofely to any fingle model: for he who does fo, is almoft fure of being feduced into a faulty and affected imitation. His bufinefs fhould be, to draw from feveral the proper ideas of perfection. Blair.

78. On the Style of BOLINGBROKE and SWIFT.

Some authors there are, whofe manner of writing approaches nearer to the flyle of fpeaking than others; and who, therefore, can be imitated with more fafety. In this clafs, among the English authors, are Dean Swift, and Lord Bolingbroke, The Dean, throughout all his writings, in the midst of much correctness, maintains the eafy natural manner of an unaffected fpeaker; and this is one of his chief excellencies. Lord Bolingbroke's ftyle is more fplendid, and more declamatory than Dean Swift's; but still it is the ftyle of one who speaks, or rather who harangues. Indeed, all his political writings (for it is to them only, and not to his philofophical ones, that this obfervation can be applied) carry much more the appearance of one declaiming with warmth in a great affembly, than of one writing in a clofet, in order to be read by others. They have all the copioufnefs, the fervour, the inculcating method, that is allowable and graceful in an orator; perhaps too much of it for a writer and it is to be regretted, as I have formerly obferved, that the matter contained in them fhould have been fo trivial or fo falfe; for, from the manner and ftyle, confiderable advantage might be reaped, Ibid.

§79. Frequent Exercise in compofing and Speaking neceffury for Improvement in Eloquence.

Befides attention to the best models, frequent exercife, both in compofing and fpeaking, will be admitted to be a neceffary mean of improvement. That fort of compofition is, doubtlefs, moft ufeful, which relates to the profeffion, or kind of public speaking, to which perfons addict themselves. This they fhould keep ever in their eye, and be gradually inuring themfelves to it. But let me alfo advife them, not to allow themselves in negligent compofition of any kind. He who has it for his aim to write, or to fpeak correctly, fhould, in the most trivial kind of compoition, in writing a letter, nay, even in

common difcourfe, ftudy to acquit himself with propriety. I do not at all mean, that he is never to write, or to speak a word, but in elaborate and artificial language. This would form him to a ftiffnefs and affectation, worse, by ten thousand degrees, than the greatest negligence. But it is to be obferved, that there is, in every thing, a manner which is becoming, and has propriety; and oppofite to it, there is a clumly and faulty performance of the fame thing. The becoming manner is very often the moft light, and feemingly careless manner; but it requires tafte and attention to feize the juft idea of it. That idea, when acquired, we fhould keep in our eye, and form upon it whatever we write or fay. Ibid.

$80. Of what Use the Study of critical and rhetorical Writers may be.

It now only remains to enquire, of what ufe may the ftudy of critical and rhetorical writers be, for improving one in the practice of eloquence? Thefe are certainly not to be neglected; and yet, I dare not fay that much is to be expected from them. For profeffed writers on public speaking, we muft look chiefly among the ancients. In modern times, for reafons which were before given, popular eloquence, as an art, has never been very much the object of ftudy; it has not the fame powerful effect among us that it had in more democratical ftates; and therefore has not been cultivated with the fame care. Among the moderns, though there has been a great deal of good criticism on the different kinds of writing, yet much has not been attempted on the fubject of eloquence, or public difcourfe; and what has been given us of that kind, has been drawn moftly from the ancients. Such a writer as Joannes Gerardus Voffius, who has gathered into one heap of ponderous lumber, all the trifling, as well as the ufeful things, that are to be found in the Greek and Roman writers, is enough to difguft one with the study of eloquence. Among the French, there has been more attempted, on this fubject, than among the English. The Bishop of Cambray's writings on eloquence, I before mentioned with honour. Rollin, Batteux, Crevier, Gibert, and several other French critics, have alfo written on oratory; but though fome of them may be useful, none of them are fo confiderable as to deserve particular recommendation.

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Ibid. § 81.

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