bottom of the reservoir, and the bottom of the reservoir is sure to be muddy at all times, and especially so when a fire pump is running at its full capacity and taking in water rapidly, and thus producing a strong flow towards the intake, and the pump is sure to have its efficiency cut down by taking in mud.

A wooden-sided reservoir is not to be recommended on account of the rotting away of the wood, the seepage being to a considerable extent of mud, and the reduction of the pump efficiency by mud and other foreign matter being drawn in with the water.

A proper reservoir should be constructed of bricks or stone set in cement and faced with a coating of cement at least 1⁄2 inch thick in small reservoirs, and thicker in large ones. The bottom, if on a leaky soil, should be covered with at least 12 feet of puddle for a small or medium-sized reservoir, and of greater thickness for a larger one. It is not advisable to build side walls less than 16 inches in thickness. Hard-baked brick only should be used; the cement facing will ir time fall away from the soft bricks on account of the absorption of water from the earth by these bricks loosening the hold of the mortar.

Water in a reservoir should never come nearer than one foot of the top in small reservoirs, and in larger ones the distance should be greater; this is to prevent the water on a windy day from wearing away the top and edge by the waves formed by the wind.

All the ground around a reservoir should slope away from it in order to prevent surface drainage with its earthy matter from flowing into the reservoir.

Ponds. The making of ponds by the damming up of small creeks and branches is not to be recommended in those sections of the country where the streams are subject to floods and where they run through soil that is readily soluble, as these ponds are apt to become gradually shallower and shallower until their capacity is seriously interfered with. This is especially so in a greater part of the Southern States. Where the water runs clear the year 'round a pond is to be expected to retain its capacity, but where the water is muddy the pond had better not have too much dependence placed upon its continued maximum capacity. Where the ponds are produced by the damming up of large

streams and rivers, the above results are not apt to obtain, and the supply is apt to be and remain much in excess of the amount required.

Suction Wells.-Where suction wells are used for fire pump, they should be used for this purpose alone and not have feed water or condenser pumps taking their suctions from the same well. Adequate sized pipe laid on an incline must connect the well with its source of supply, and the amount of water in the well under normal conditions should be sufficient to supply the pump at its rated capacity for at least three minutes.

CHAPTER XI.

OTHER FIRE APPLIANCES.

That efforts may be made to extinguish a fire in its incipiency, or control a fire as soon as possible before it has gained any headway, every plant should be provided with some fire-fighting appliances; those appliances which are the most easily handled and the least liable to get out of order when needed, and which require the least attention to keep them in order, are the most likely to prove of value when their services are needed. Patented devices which have not received the approval of the Underwriters should be avoided, as they are apt to prove but a waste of money in their purchase.

The quantity and character of the appliances must be governed to a great extent by the size and number of fire divisions, the character of goods or manufacturing carried on in the buildings, the exposures, and the class of help who must be depended upon to handle the appliance.

Where buildings are built of wood, or where they are built with wooden cornices, or where they have open windows not readily capable of being protected by standard fire shutters, and are directly exposed to other buildings, the danger from a fire communicating from the exposed building can be materially lessened by the use of open sprinkler heads, and these are strongly recommended under such conditions.

FIRE PAILS should be distributed in every class of risk; the most ignorant person knows what to do with a pail of water in case of a fire, and what may be expected of the water if it is thrown on the fire, hence this kind of a fire extinguishing appliance stands at the head of non-automatic appliances.

The round bottom galvanized iron pail will be found the most durable and the most lasting. Most lasting, both from the point of wear and tear, and also from the point of remaining in a plant, for it is the general habit of the help in many mills to consider fire pails as removable property.

At least twelve pails should be placed for every 5,000 feet of superficial area, but this number should be increased wherever the hazards are very great.

Pails should be properly labeled, as “Fire Pails,” or “For Fire Only," and should be hung on substantial iron supports or be placed on shelves kept for this purpose only.

A specified person should be appointed to see that the pails are kept full of water and free from all foreign materials.

Pails containing chemical solutions are not recommended. CASKS full of water should be placed in all rooms where an increased quantity of water, over that contained in the fire pails, is advisable.

BLANKETS should be provided at all points where any quantity of oil or varnish or any other material which will flow or spread, while burning, is used, as such material can be extinguished before spreading by smothering it with a blanket.

SAND in pails, or in half-barrels, or boxes, with scoops or shovels in them, should be placed at or in all oil rooms, and in all rooms where benzine, naphtha, benzole, gasolene, or any compounds containing any of the preceding liquids are used (as in boot and shoe factories, rubber works, etc.).

THERMOSTATS.—A thermostat is a device for automatically indicating a specific temperature, and giving an alarm when that temperature is reached.

Thermostats are placed on the ceiling of a room and are of a temperature operating point commensurate with the normal temperature of the room in which they are placed. The operating points for the different thermostats, i. e., high and low test thermostats, are 140, 160, 200 and 300 degrees, Fahrenheit, as per National Board of Fire Underwriters.

In localities where there is a central station the alarm is arranged to ring in the central station, and thus, even if the plant has no watchman of its own, any fire will act as its own agent in sending an alarm to a point where there is always a watchman, and thus a fire will be indicated before it has gained much headway.

In localities where there is no central station, the thermostats can be arranged to give an alarm in several different locations, as, for instance, in the office, in the superintendent's, the owner's.

the engineer's, etc., residence, and thus indicate in some specific place where some one of authority about the plant lives and where some one is reasonably sure to hear any alarm given.

DRY POWDER FIRE EXTINGUISHERS.-"So-called fire extinguishers, consisting generally of sheet metal tubes filled with mixtures of bicarbonate of soda and other materials in powdered form, are inferior for general use. Attempts to extinguish fires with them may cause delay in the use of water and other approved extinguishing agents, and therefore their introduction should nɔt be encouraged." (Committee on Devices and Materials, National Board of Fire Underwriters, December, 1901.)

CHEMICAL EXTINGUISHERS—(National Board of Fire Underwriters)-Stationary Chemical Extinguishers.—Tank shall have a capacity of at least 250 gallons and not more than 500 gallons, and the tanks shall be at least 10 gallons, in addition to 250 gallons, for each 1,000 square feet of floor space in addition to 25,000 square feet; casements to be included in estimating floor space. Two or more tanks to be furnished where larger supplies are required.

The standpipe and connections shall be of galvanized iron pipe securely fastened in place. Galvanized iron fittings shall be used throughout and the piping coupled with threaded couplings, or right and left couplings instead of unions. Standpipe and connections must withstand a hydrostatic pressure of 300 pounds to the square inch. Standpipes connected with the tank must not be less than one-fourth inch piping, and in case of long runs or where conditions necessitate numerous changes in direction, the standpipe and connections must be of at least one and one-half inch piping. Connections shall be made with as few bends as possible and the piping so installed that it can be drained from as few points as possible, but so that the contents of all tanks can be discharged at any station where two or more tanks are installed.

A water connection at least 11⁄2-inch with hose attached shall be installed near the tank to facilitate cleaning and refilling. Permanent fixed water connections to the apparatus are objectionable on account of the possibility of leaky valves allowing the tank and standpipe to fill.

Wire-operating cables must be of phosphor bronze. Each cable