was advised to suspend it momentarily. In the interval great efforts were made toward popular education and for the establishment of institutions of a nature calculated to increase the public enlightenment. I am now happy to know that the people are more able to appreciate the benefits of a constitution, and I was heartily glad to restore it, notwithstanding influential advice to the contrary. My will is definite and unalterable, and henceforth the constitution will regulate the affairs of the nation. The cabinet, which Kiamil Pasha has formed, will fulfill our decision.

"The budget of the empire will be presented to you, the Budget to be financial situation being the chief matter for your considera- submitted tion. Public instruction and the strengthening of the army

and navy will also occupy the most serious attention of my government.

"I am hopeful that your labors will prove fruitful to the good of the empire and the people, and with this hope I hereby proclaim the formal opening of the new parliament.

"I am happy to see assembled here the representatives of the people, and heartily salute them, it being my will that the constitution be faithfully observed and jealously guarded. I pray that God bless your labors and grant divine assistance." The Sultan's address was greeted with an outburst of great applause.

354. Robert

Fulton's ac

count of the Clermont's

CHAPTER XXX

THE EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN THE NINETEENTH

CENTURY

Section 101. The Growth of International Trade and

Competition

The invention of cheap and rapid means of commun cation was one of the chief causes of that quest f markets which has led European nations to establis protectorates, spheres of influence, and colonies in a of the available parts of the world. The revolution i navigation was begun in 1807, when Robert Fulton mad his famous journey from New York to Albany and bac in his steamboat, the Clermont. In the following lette to the editor of the American Citizen, Fulton briefly describes his wonderful experiment.

Sir:

NEW YORK, September 15, 1807

I arrived this afternoon, at four o'clock, in the steamboat from Albany. As the success of my experiment gives me great hopes that such boats may be rendered of great importance first trip from to my country, to prevent erroneous opinions and give some satisfaction to the friends of useful improvements, you will have the goodness to publish the following statement of facts:

New York

to Albany

and return

I left New York on Monday at one o'clock, and arrived at Clermont, the seat of Chancellor Livingston, at one o'clock on Tuesday, — time, twenty-four hours; distance, one hundred and ten miles. On Wednesday I departed from the chancellor's at nine in the morning, and arrived at Albany at five in the afternoon, distance, forty miles; time, eight hours. The sum is one hundred and fifty miles in thirty-two hours, equal to near five miles an hour.

On Thursday, at nine o'clock in the morning, I left Albany, and arrived at the chancellor's at six in the evening; I started from thence at seven, and arrived at New York at four in the afternoon, time, thirty hours; space run through, one hundred and fifty miles, equal to five miles an hour. Throughout my whole way, both going and returning, the wind was ahead; no advantage could be derived from my sails; the whole has therefore been performed by the power of the steam engine. I am, sir, your obedient servant,

ROBERT FULTON

In a letter to his friend, Mr. Barlow, Fulton adds the following observations:

The power of propelling boats by steam is now fully proved. The morning I left New York there were not perhaps thirty persons in the city who believed that the boat would ever move one mile an hour, or be of the least utility; and while we were putting off from the wharf, which was crowded with spectators, I heard a number of sarcastic remarks. This is the way in which ignorant men compliment what they call philosophers and projectors.

Having employed much time, money, and zeal in accomplishing this work, it gives me, as it will you, great pleasure to see it fully answer my expectations. It will give a cheap and quick conveyance to the merchandise on the Mississippi, Missouri, and other great rivers, which are now laying open their treasures to the enterprise of our countrymen ; and although the prospect of personal emolument has been some inducement to me, yet I feel indefinitely more pleasure in reflecting on the immense advantage my country will derive from the invention. . .

...

As soon as Fulton thoroughly demonstrated the possibility of using steam for driving ships, inventors set to work on the problems of increasing the size of boats and

improving the old crude and wasteful steam engine The

355. Improvements in methods of transportation

Transportation on land

ee

can be carried to all parts of the world at rates which would have astounded Fulton. A glimpse at these marvelous achievements is afforded by the following extract from a work by David A. Wells, written several years ago before the recent triumphs of the turbine engine. The result of the construction and use of compound engines in economizing coal has been illustrated by Sir Lion Playfair, by the statement that a small cake of coal that would pass through a ring the size of a shilling, when burned in the compound engine of a modern steamboat, would drive a ton of food and its proportion of the ship two miles on its way from a foreign port." Another calculator, says the London Engineer, "has computed that half a sheet of note paper will develop sufficient power, when burned in connection with a triple-expansion engine, to carry a ton a mile in an Atlantic steamer." How, under the circumstances, the charge for sea freights on articles of comparatively high value has been reduced, is shown by the fact that the ocean transport of fresh meat from New York to Liverpool does not exceed one cent per pound. . . .

Great, however, as has been the revolution in respect to economy and efficiency in the carrying trade upon the ocean, the revolution in the carrying trade on land during the same period has been even greater and more remarkable. Taking the American railroads in general as representative of the railroad system of the world, the average charge for moving one ton of freight per mile has been reduced from about two and one-half cents in 1869 to about a cent in 1887. To grasp fully the meaning and significance of these figures, their method of presentation may be varied by saying that two thousand pounds of coal, iron, wheat, cotton, or other commodities can now be carried on the best-managed railways for a distance of one mile for a sum so small that, outside of China, it would be difficult to find a coin of equivalent value to give to a boy as a reward for carrying an ounce package across the street, even if a man or boy could be found in Europe or the United States willing either to give or accept so small a compensation for such a service.

Smiles, in his story of the Life of George Stephenson, gives the following account of the formal opening of the railway line between Liverpool and Manchester.

At length the line was completed and ready for the public 356. The ceremony of the opening, which took place on September 30, opening of the Liverpool 1830. This important event attracted a vast number of spec- and Mantators from all parts of the country. Strong palings were erected chester railfor miles along the deep cuttings near Liverpool, to keep off way in 1830 the pressure from the multitude and prevent them from falling over in their eagerness to witness the passing trains. Constables and soldiers were there in numbers to assist in keeping the line clear. The completion of the railway was justly regarded as an important national event, and the ceremony of the opening was celebrated accordingly. The duke of Wellington, then prime minister, Sir Robert Peel, secretary of state, Mr. Huskisson, one of the members for Liverpool and an earnest supporter of the project from the commencement, were amongst the number of distinguished public personages present.

line

Eight locomotives constructed at the Stephenson works had Eight locobeen delivered and placed upon the line, the whole of which motives in had been tried and tested weeks before with perfect success. The various trains of carriages accommodated in all about six hundred persons. The "Northumbrian " engine, driven by George Stephenson himself, headed the procession; then followed the " Phoenix," driven by Robert Stephenson; the "North Star," by Robert Stephenson, senior (brother of George); the "Rocket," by Joseph Locke; the "Dart," by Thomas L. Gooch; the "Comet," by William Allcard; the "Arrow," by Frederick Swanwick; and the "Meteor," by Anthony Harding.

The procession was cheered in its progress by thousands of Crowds cheer spectators, through the deep ravine of Olive Mount, up the the procession Sutton incline, over the great Sankey viaduct, beneath which a multitude of persons had assembled, carriages filling the narrow lanes and barges crowding the river; the people below gazing with wonder and admiration upon the trains which sped along far above their heads at the rate of some twenty-five miles an hour.