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in a single chapter, has been expanded into seven. This is a development in keeping with the promise of the title of the volume, and after treating of the literary activity of the time and the treatises of Herbart and Herbert Spencer turns to the extension of popular education, Frobel and the kindergarten, the professional preparation of teachers, school supervision, manual and industrial training, improvements in methods of instruction, and the discussion of the relative value of studies. These added chapters are very short and give us but a bird's-eye view of the topics but at least open to the student the field of modern pedagogy. Prof. Williams writes clearly and agreeably, and has arranged his materials in such a way as to give a better view of the chronological order of educational development than is afforded by either of the other manuals in common use in this country. He gives indeed a very engaging and connected sketch of the growth of educational opinion since the renascence. The new edition is much more attractive than the old and is illustrated by a series of portraits of the principal leaders of educational thought.

Silver, Burdette & Co.

-SHAKSPEARE: THE TEMPEST, (147 pp.; cloth 60c). A MIDSUMMER NIGHT'S DREAM 127 pp.; cloth 60c), edited by Homer B. Sprague, belong to the series of "Studies in Engligh Classics" which the publishers are issuing. They are attractive books in red cloth, with red edges, containing, besides the text, an introductory discussion of the date, sources and construction of the plays; a collection of critical opinions from more than twenty acknowledged masters of criticism-material of very great value for the study of the plays; and an appendix treating of the study of English literature. The foot notes afford explanation of unusual words, curious customs, historical and antiquarian allusions, etc. The former issues of the series have made the editor's method well known, and it is therefore sufficient to add that these volumes are fully up to the standard previously established.

Miscellaneous.

-COLUMBIAN Prize Charades, by Herbert Ingalls, author of "The Boston Charades'' (Lee & Shepard, Boston, Mass.; $1.00), contains one hundred and sixty numbers of this sort of puzzle. Prizes, in a series of ten, are offered to persons more or less successful in recording the solutions. The particulars regarding the competition are given in the book itself. The newer volume gives, in an appendix, the solutions of "The Boston Charades." Concerning "Boston Charades," Mr. Ingalls' previous book, the "Public Ledger," of Philadelphia, says: "The conundrum has usually done duty to quicken sociability and provoke conversation. But the conundrum must now retire from public life before this collection of charades, which claim originality, wit, and poetic charm. One hundred and sixteen words are thus tortured and twisted from their meaning by ingenious play and turns, and if young people have the mind to learn the verses rather than others of classic and modern beauty, the little book will serve its purpose 'to give pleasure around the evening lamp at home; in the friendly competition of party or of club; in the sweet idleness of summer days by the seashore or among the hills.' ''

-BATAILLE DE DAMES, par Scribe et Legouvé, edited by Benjamin W. Wells (D. C. Heath & Co., Boston; 108 pp.; 25c.), contains besides the delightful drama, an introduction which sketches the lives and works of its authors, and sufficient notes to guide the learner through the easy text. -PETITE HISToire de Napoleon le Grand, with English notes references and vocabulary by Arthur H. Solial (May nard, Merrill & Co., N. Y.; 96 pp.; 25c.), we are told by the author, "is the result of much research and industrious gleaning in the best and most reliable biographies of Napoleon."' The story is of course interesting, the French quite simple, and sufficient grammatical and historical helps are afforded in the notes.

-THE STORY OF BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, and THE STORY OF Daniel WebsTER, by James Baldwin (Werner Book Co., Chicago, each 15c.), are the latest additions to the "Werner Biographical Booklets" for very young readers. The stories are capitally told, and the books in their flexible brown covers very attractive.

-IN SCHOOL DAYS, and other Poems, by Duncan Day (published by Ed. L. Luckow, Baraboo, Wis.; 71 pp.; cloth 50c., paper 35c.) derives its inspiration and model from "Snow Bound," in the meter of which it is written. It attempts to depict scenes of village life as it may be seen in Sauk county, and displays considerable skill in selecting and developing the incidents. The execution is uneven, at times attaining a measure of excellence and at others showing very clearly the yet untrained hand. The work suffers from comparison with Whittier's, as the young author lacks wealth of allusion and subtleness of phrase. His verse also hobbles at times. The other pieces besides the one giving title to the volume are very slight.

-ELEAZER WILLIAMS-HIS FORERUNNERS AND HIMSELF, by William Ward Wight (71 pages; a pamphlet published by the Parkman Club, Milwaukee), effectually disposes of the claims of this singular man to recognition as the dauphin of France. The history of the pretender and his father is here worked out with commendable care, supported with ample references to authorities, and pursued with such elaboration as apparantly to leave no possible foothold for a revival of his claim. But historical mysteries are too precious to the multitude to be readily given up, and we shall expect to meet his story told in good faith notwithstanding this complete refutation.

-GOETHE'S IPHIGENIE AUF TAURIS, edited by Lewis A. Rhodes (D. C. Heath & Co.; 139 pp.; 70c.), presents in the attractive form of the well known "Modern Language Series' one of the most interesting of Goethe's dramas edited for English students. The introduction discusses the composition and sources of the play, with a critical study of it, and is of much value and interest. The notes are mainly literary and critical, but afford helps to translation wherever this is necessary.

-THE PUBLIC DUTY OF EDUCATED MEN, by George William Curtis (Maynard, Merrill & Co.; 12c.), deserves to be reckoned one of the classic pieces of American oratory. It was delivered at Union College commencement in 1877 and faithfully represents its author's noble position in politics. It is issued, with biographical sketches and critical opinions, in the publishers' "English Classic Series," and deserves to be widely studied.

LITERARY NOTES.

—Littell's Living Age enters upon its two hundred and twelfth volume with the number for January 2nd. At the new price of six dollars, and with its added supplement, this sterling eclectic weekly deserves to be more widely popular than ever. The Olney Doctrine, The Duel of the Period in France, Bandi Miklos, a Hungarian story, A Modern Morality, The Puritan in History, Recollections of Coventry Patmore, Catholic Mystics of the Middle Ages-such are the contents of this issue. Published by the Living Age Co., Boston.

-A Century of Social Betterment by John B. McMaster, Dominant Forces in Southern Life by W. P. Trent, Cheerful Yesterdays by T. W. Higginson and the Poetry of Rudyard Kipling by Charles Eliot Norton are among the attractions of the January Atlantic Monthly.

-The Popular Science Monthly for January contains a paper by Dr. Jastrow of the state university on The Popular Esthetics of color based on studies made at the Columbian Exposition. Prof. Heilprin contributes an interesting paper on Our Present Knowledge of the Antarctic Region.

-The Forum continues to lead in the vigorous discussion of timely topics. It opens the January number with an interesting study of Leo XIII; discussions of the tariff, the Cuban question, presidential elections and intercollegiate debating follow. Dr. Rice continues his series of educational papers with the Essentials in Elementary Education.

-We are indebted to the publishers of McClure's Magazine for copies of the earliest known portrait of Grant and of an unpublished portrait of Washington. The former appears in the first number of Hamlin Garland's Life of Grant, which promises to be a great attraction in the issues of the present year.

Journal of Education

Vol. XXVII.

MADISON, WIS., FEBRUARY, 1897.

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ELSEWHERE we publish some extracts from a circular of the secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education which furnish interesting details regarding the normal schools of that state. It will be noticed that the terms of admission to these schools are practically the same as graduation from a high school. We must add that examination in one language besides English is required in all cases. The specifications for examination may be profitably compared with the requirements for our state examination.

The general two years course prescribed in the schools is distinctly characterized as designed for those who aim to teach in public schools below the high school grade. An advanced two years course, the requirement for admission to which is graduation from college or its equivalent is "designed

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primarily for those who aim to teach in public schools above grammar school grades." The accompanying letter of advice to candidates says of preparation for admission: "A still more extended training would be helpful, for I cannot conceive of a discipline so thorough, of attainments so great, of culture so high, but that all these things may have some precious value even in teaching little children. If, however, it is your aim to teach in a high school, neither you nor the high school should be content with any academic preparation that falls short of a good four years' college course."

SCHOOL BOARDS are business and not professional organizations, and their proper functions are determined by this fact. Teachers, and especially superintendents, ought to be professional experts upon whose advice in all matters pertaining to educational practice or theory the board may rely in determining text-books, supplies, assistants in the schools, rules of organization and management, etc. Any business house that employs an expert and then continually disregards his advice brings upon itself well merited disaster. If he is not competent he should be discharged at once; if he is competent the folly of overruling him in his own field is self-evident. These sound business principles need to be applied to public school work. The superintendent or principal of the school ought to be the educational expert of the board, to be consulted in all things relating to educational policy, and to be rarely overruled, and then only after the most careful and thorough deliberation. This separation of the educational from the business aspects of school work is not difficult to make and is of great importance. At present we need to emphasize it and to dwell upon the fact that the school board is a business organization, charged fundamentally with what the New Englanders used to call "the prudentials" of the school, and as the "prudentials" are primary and indispensable given the ultimate control. Acting upon "prudential" considerations alone they ought to be and usually are fully competent for their task.

THOROUGHNESS in school work may be pushed to a foolish and mischievous excess. We mean by the term not merely that a topic

may be pushed into unwise and time-wasting details, but also that there may be too strenuous insistence.upon complete and abiding mastery of what is taught. This is one of the errors common in the teaching of arithmetic. Children do not have at command some principle or process and hence are put upon further drill in it, when reflection would show the teacher that the lapse is merely temporary and not significant as to real growth. But we prefer to quote from Dr. Harris, in the Report of the Committee of Fifteen: "The law of apperception, we are told, proves that temporary methods of solving problems should not be so thoroughly mastered as to be used invol

untarily, or as a matter of unconscious habit, for the reason that a higher and a more adequate method of solution will then be found more difficult to acquire. The more thoroughly a method is learned, the more it becomes a part of the mind and the greater the repug

nance of the mind toward a new method. Teachers should be careful, especially with precocious children, not to continue too long in the use of a process that is becoming mechanical, for it is already growing into a second nature, and becoming a part of the unconscious apperceptive process by which the mind reacts against the environment, recognizes its presence, and explains it to itself." We refer teachers on this matter to the portions of the report relating to language and to arithmetic where it is explained and illustrated in detail. DISCUSSING the essentials in elementary education in the January Forum Dr. Rice estimates that about seventy per cent. of the time in these schools is devoted to the three R's, and believes that this might be reduced fifty per cent. by a reasonable exclusion of what is unnecessary. This seems not unlikely when one takes account of the waste of time in penmanship, spelling, reading classes, arithmetic and geography. He urges that the National Association might appoint committees on these branches to investigate present experience and where necessary to introduce experiments for determining the time necessary and establishing rational standards of school work. of reading, spelling and penmanship may be learned incidentally in the acquisition of what he calls "content" studies-those pursued for the knowledge acquired, as history and science. Obviously what we need most is intelligent study of this sort bestowed on elementary work, to prepare the way for that enrichment of the course in "content" studies towards which our development is evidently rapidly tending. This is a field of study especially interesting to intelligent elementary teachers.

Much

ASSOCIATION NOTES.

The meeting of the State Teachers' Association, just held, was the largest in numbers for many years, and the attendance was espe

cially noticeable for its quality as well as its quantity. Every part of the state was well represented, and by its leading teachers. The set papers and addresses were of a high grade, but the discussions were necessarily confined mostly to the section meetings. The difficulty

here was in the "embarrassment of riches" in

choosing among so many inviting programs. If another day had been possible for the Association, so as to have fewer section meetings going on at the same time and more time for some of the sections, it would have satisfied many of the members better.

will be made to secure the printing by the On the suggestion of Pres. Burch, an effort Certainly they have long deserved to be prestate of the proceedings of the Association. served in permanent form.

There have been other meetings characterized by special points of great interest in the addresses or the discussions, which make them memorable in the traditions of the Association, but there has been no meeting which has held up to so uniformly high standard of excellence and of interest as the one which has just closed.

One of the leading candidates for the presidency of the State Teachers' Association was a woman and one who is well worthy of receiving that honor irrespective of the theoretical question of giving the women a chance. Miss Rose Swart has conquered for herself one of the highest places as a teacher by force of her own character and ability with no advantage more than thousands of other country school teachers had.

In G. G. Williams, of Superior, the new president, the Association honored its faithful secretary, recognized the demands of the county superintendents to be represented and also recognized the new north, which is coming to be a power in the state in every line. Pres. Williams is a man of ability and of organizing power and will make a success of his year as president.

THREE YANKEE SOLUTIONS.

Three solutions of school problems which have been reached in Massachusetts seem to us so clearly wise and so fully approved by results that we cannot but believe they are destined to be widely adopted. We need to apply them in Wisconsin, and towards the adoption of one of them at least we have already made some progress. We shall call

them solutions of the rural school problem, of the village and small city school problem, and of the large city school problem. Each of these problems arises out of the peculiar conditions of the institutions to which it relates, and apparently sets up a barrier to further progress in their development.

The bane of the rural school is its isolation. It is in the midst of a scattered community, with limited resources and undeveloped ideals. Few pupils attend it, and attend it somewhat irregularly. They are of various grades of attainment, so that beyond the most element ary training the instruction must be individual, hurried and unsatisfactory. Usually only teachers of very limited training and small experience can be secured for the school, and they are continually changing. Moreover, no prospect opens up before the pupils to develop their ideals and stimulate their ambition. The school has no organic connection with higher institutions. Thus it is isolated and unprogressive, and the means of infusing, new life into it seem to be wanting. And to maintain such an unsatisfactory school the community in which it exists pays heavier taxes than fall upon the patrons of a city school system. Is there no remedy? The Yankee answer is, Yes. Diminish the number of these feeble and inefficient schools by allowing districts to combine and provide free transportation to and from school for those living at a distance. Experience has proved that this can be done at a less expense than is involved in maintaining the feeble schools, while employing better teachers, and even in many cases introducing grading so that the teaching may be more effectively directed. This plan was permissive in Massachusetts, and was first tried in a few neighborhoods; but the results proved so satisfactory that it has been steadily gaining ground, and promises before long to work a complete reform in the rural education of the commonwealth. This is an important step towards the solution of the problem, but there is another. Massachusetts provides free high school instruction for every child in her borders who is prepared to receive it. The state will pay his tuition in the nearest high school which she has approved for such work. In looking at the solution to the problem we are surprised at its simplicity. It commends itself at once as a common sense plan for overcoming the difficulties, and is therefore worthy of adoption.

The small city problem is different and its solution is equally simple. The schools of such communities lack efficient supervision. There is no educational head to them, study

ing their problems, guiding their teachers, fashioning their administration to secure the most approved results. We have tried to overcome the difficulty by making the high school principal also superintendent and then loaded him with teaching enough to occupy all his time. Even when he is given an hour for such work he is not a supervisor, for his chief effort and thought are elsewhere directed. He is a teacher, not a superintendent, and cannot be both with efficiency. Then we have elected a doctor, or a lawyer, or a merchant to be superintendent, and found him a mere makeshift, a stop-gap and not an educational leader. How can it be otherwise? Massachusetts says, let three or four neighboring towns combine to hire a superintendent. They can then afford to employ a man who knows his business and will quickly show that the money paid him is the most economical of expenditures. This field. will not be more complicated then that of the large city superintendent—usually much less so-and he has the skill and will have the time to develop it all properly. Again the solution appeals to common sense and approves itself in experience.

The large city problem grows out of the effect of city and school life upon the character and aims of young people. They usually lack the home duties which fall upon the country boy and girl, and to some extent upon those of small cities, and keep them in touch with the realities of life while developing the practical and productive side of their nature. Usefulness, the power and habit of contributing to the needs of daily life, work, work with the hands as well as the brain, and the respect for work which such experience brings, is greatly needed by city children, and is supplied by the manual training school, with its adaptation to the industrial outlook of boys and of girls. We have taken a step towards this in Wisconsin, and in time shall probably be ready for another. In Massachusetts every city of twenty thousand inhabitants or upwards is required by law to maintain a properly equipped manual training school.

We feel sure that the common sense, simplicity and practical importance of these three solutions will commend them to our readers and secure their ultimate adoption in our

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ELECTION OF SCHOOL BOARDS.

In the country districts and in the villages the people elect the school boards and vote the taxes to support the schools; in the cities generally, with some important exceptions, the people do not elect school boards or vote school taxes. Why is this? Are the people Are the people of the cities less to be trusted with the care of the most vital interest of local government than are the people in the country? And if that really is the case, are the city politicians who appoint school boards more to be trusted than the country politicians who do not appoint them?

Under either system exceptionally good or exceptionally bad officers may occasionally be elected or appointed, but the most of the members of school boards will necessarily be fair average citizens, without professional knowledge of educational questions, but with good business capacity. The real question is not so much as to the character or capacity of the members of school boards under the two systems. But it is to whom the school boards will feel themselves responsible, to the people at large, or to a little circle of managing politicians. Under which system would it be easier for an incompetent teacher to retain his place? Under which system would it be easier for political or social influences or business interests to dictate the appointment or promotion of teachers or the choice of text-books or the location or construction of school houses?

Any

The

Our government is said to be "a government of the people, by the people and for the people." The great political problem of today is to secure good government in the cities. The only effectual way to do this is to trust the people and then to educate them. scheme which undertakes to put a portion of the government out of the hands of the people must inevitably run greater risks from the selfseeking of the persons entrusted with power than the risks from the ignorance and carelessness of the people themselves. method of appointment of school boards takes the control of the schools out of the hands of the people and puts it in the hands of the politicians. In a certain sense it is true that every citizen is and ought to be a politician. But the private citizen is a politician for the interests of his city, his state, or his nation. He is affected doubtless by his prejudices, political and otherwise, and by his local interests. But there is little or no personal interest affecting his vote. While the professional politician, though an abler man than the average citizen, necessarily has his own ends and the

ends of his own little faction to serve, and if the public interest and this private interest conflict, the public interest is apt to suffer.

The chief danger in popular elections is from the political prejudices which lead the average citizen to vote for his party candidate without regard to his fitness for the place. This danger is not obviated by the method of appointment, as is well known. Party politics controls mayor and aldermen fully as much as it does private citizens. But this danger can be avoided by putting the election at a time when no other election is held.

The members of school boards should be elected on a general ticket, not by wards, so that they shall represent the whole city, notone section or ward. It is better, probably, that they should be elected for three years, one-third to go out each year. In that case a city school board of nine members would be of convenient size for all but the very largest cities.

It must not be forgotten that in nearly every state an election by the people would mean that women as well as men should vote for school officers and be eligible. The general laws now providing for women voting in school matters would, in most states, come in force without any additional provision as soon as it was provided that city school boards should be elected by the qualified electors, unless it was specially provided in the city charters that women should not vote for school boards. This would be a considerable advantage to the schools. Women have as great an interest in schools as men have, and usually greater, because the mothers have more of the care of children than the fathers have. Women have served on school boards of several cities with marked ability, notably in Chicago and Milwaukee. And as the great majority of teachers are women, and half the pupils are girls, it seems no more than fair that women should hold places on school boards. A large number of women are now superintendents of schools, city and county, and are filling these offices with credit. Voting and holding office by women in school matters wherever it has been tried has been a success.

Just now we in Wisconsin are watching with much interest the discussion going on in Milwaukee over the question of reforming the school board of that city. Whatever Milwaukee does has necessarily great influence on the rest of the state. If Milwaukee would elect. instead of appointing its school board, on a general ticket at an election held for that purpose only, and would allow women to vote at this election in accordance with the general

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