mountains, namely, Aksú, Kutshe, Kárashar, are partly inhabited by the Kirghiz; next to them, but further towards the east, dwell a people of somewhat similar aspect, but of the Buddhist religion, who are called by their Mohammedan neighbours Kalmuks. According to Mr. Shaw's researches, the Kalmuks begin in the neighbourhood of Kárashar; in the mountainous tracts they are, like the Kirghiz, nomads, but they also form a portion of the town population. The borders of the deserts are inhabited by the Dúlans, a half-nomadic Mussulman horde with predatory habits. They are supposed to dwell in caves and mud huts. Also there is a tradition of a wild race of men who live on fish, and are clothed with garments made from the bark of trees. They are supposed to dwell near the great lake of Lob-Nor, in the heart of the desert, in the district of Kurdam-Kák, where the united streams of Turkestán disappear in the sand. But no one belonging to this mythical race of wild men has hitherto been seen.

Beyond the Thián-Shán or Celestial mountains expands the extensive territory of Dzungaria. The inhabitants of this country are assumed to be of Kalmuk origin; but there exist at present two other ruling tribes of different descent, namely, the Dúnganís and the Tarantshís. According to tradition, the Dúnganís are a mixed race formed from Tartar invaders and Chinese women. They are strict Mussulmans, but speak Chinese. Mr. Shaw declares that those whom he saw were tall, powerfully built men, with strongly marked Mongolian features. The Tarantshís are likewise a people with fixed habitations, but of more recent date; probably their original native country was more westward in Turkestán. There is also in Dzungaria a strong admixture of Chinese blood, be

cause this province was made use of by the Chinese rulers as a penal settlement for convicts and political offenders. Further to the east of Dzungaria is the Chinese province of Kansú, the population of which is composed of a very numerous Mohammedan element. On the north it adjoins the almost unknown interior of Mongolia.

Our knowledge concerning the territories lying on the north of the great desert of Gobi is certainly obscure enough; but how much more are we overwhelmed with darkness as regards the southern belt of that vast region! Only two points faintly gleam through this dim and dubious twilight.

One point is that Chartchand-distant, so it is said, one month's journey from Khoten-lies on a road leading thither, which runs along continuously between the ridge of the Kuen-Luen mountains and the great desert of Gobi or the Taklá-Makán. At the present time no other road is known to traverse these mountains further to the east than the one from Polú, which goes direct to the lake of Pangong, in the west of Thibet. There is, however, a road which leads to the east, and consequently to China; but it was never used by the Chinese even when in possession of this country. Chartchand is now independent of the Chinese, as well as of Jakúb-Khán. The city appears to have been inhabited by a non-Mussulman people, notwithstanding that Marco Polo' maintains a contrary opinion. At present no caravans ever leave Khoten to visit this territory.

The other point is Zilm, concerning which Mr. Shaw obtained some information. It is a city and district

Compare with this Pauthier, Le Livre de Marco Polo, vol. i. pp. 146149; and Bürck, Die Reisen des Venetianers Marco Polo, pp. 158-160; also Ausland, 1870, p. 1056.

situated six weeks' journey from Aksú or Khoten, and nearly the same distance from Lhassa. It borders on the high mountain lands that stretch thither from Lhassa, and is bounded on the north by the great desert of Gobi. There are carpet manufactories in Zilm, besides many other branches of industry, and a commercial intercourse is established between this place and Lhassa. According to this description there exists but little doubt that Zilm is the city of Sining-fu, on the Shensi frontier of Thibet. Mr. Shaw has-but, of course, only approximately and in the roughest manner-determined its position at about 38° N. lat. and 90° E. long. of Greenwich, or south of the lake Lob-Nor, and eastwards of Chartchand. Although Marco Polo has left us no accurate description of the route he pursued to enter China, still it appears probable that he must have gone from Kancheu to Sining, which he calls Sinju. In that case Sinju would be identical with Zilm.

6

These districts are also inhabited by Kalmuks, who call themselves Sokpos, and are divided into western and eastern tribes. The Western Sokpos, including those of Zilm, are Buddhists, and are called by the natives of Lhassa nang-pa, i.e. of our faith;' on the other hand, the Eastern Sokpos are called tshi-pa, of another faith,' and accordingly despised most profoundly. There is also a difference in the dialects spoken by the Western and Eastern Sokpos. Lastly, there are the Kalka-Sokpos, who worship a Grand Lama-the Yezun-Dampa. He is supposed, like the Dalai-Lama at Lhassa, never really to die, as his soul always passes into another body. These Kalka-Sokpos are probably no other than the KalkasMongols of the Russians and the Chinese, and the YezunDampa is evidently identical with the Guison-Tamba, or

Lama-King of the city of Kúren or Urga,' in the neighbourhood of the Siberian frontier. It is reported that, either annually or biennially, his envoys appear at Lhassa to do homage to the Dalai-Lama.

1 Urga means properly an encampment; the Mongols, however, called a city Kúren or Ta Kúren, i.e. an enclosed space.' It is situated about one mile northwards of the streamlet Tolla, and forty miles south of the Siberian frontier near Kiachta.

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CHAPTER VII.

RUSSIA'S FIRST ADVANCE INTO CENTRAL ASIA.1

DIPLOMATIC and commercial relations have long existed between St. Petersburg and Khiva; even Peter the Great had especially directed his attention to these affairs.2 Continually interrupted, however, by mutual animosities, they created more hatred than sympathy. Hence it was easy to foresee that Russia would make the first move against Khiva. And in fact, in 1839, when Lord Auckland directed the invasion of Kábul, the Emperor Nicholas of Russia, fearing that England would march against Turkestán and take possession of that country, commanded General Perovsky to equip an expedition against Khiva. Valid reasons for this undertaking were not wanting. The Khan of Khiva (who takes the title of Taksir Khán) had instigated to rebellion some Kirghiz who were tributaries to the Czar; he had let loose some hordes of plunderers on the caravans, and dragged off some hundreds of Russian subjects into bondage. General Perovsky's

1 I am indebted to the kindness of the Austrian Major-General Pelikan von Plauenwald for the greater and most valuable portion of the materials requisite for the composition of this chapter.

2 Between 1716 and 1719 the line of the Irtish was established. In 1716 the unfortunate expedition of Prince Bekovich took place. In 1819 the Russians, under Ponomarev and Muravev, made a fresh attempt to settle down on the eastern coasts of the Caspian Sea.