SECTION XXXVII. LESSONS IN GEOLOGY. deceive you? 6. He does not deceive me, he deceives no 1. The verb tromper, conjugated actively, corresponds to the body. 7. Are you not wrong to deceive your father? 8. I do English verb to deceive: Il trompe tout le monde. He deceives everybody. 2. Conjugated reflectively, se tromper means to be mistaken; literally, to deceive one's self: On se trompe bien souvent. One is often mistaken. 3. Ennuyer [§ 49 (2)], used actively, means to weary the mind, it amuses me. to tease, to bore: Cet homme ennuie ses auditeurs. Vous nous ennuyez par vos demandes. That man wearies his hearers. 4. S'ennuyer has no exact correspondent in English. It signifies generally, to be, or to become mentally weary of any thing or place: We are weary of being here. Nous nous ennuyons ici. Vous ennuyez vous à la campagne ? Are you weary of being in the country? 5. Je m'ennuie means in fact, I am mentally weary, I want change, amusement, occupation, &c. :Je m'ennuie partout. I find no amusement anywhere. 6. S'amuser, answers to the English expressions, to amuse one's self, to take pleasure in, to spend one's time in, to find amusement in, to enjoy one's self: Nous nous amusons à la campagne. We enjoy ourselves in the country. RESUME OF EXAMPLES. On se trompe souvent soi-même en Tout le monde est sujet à se trom- Ce marchand trompetout le monde. Est-ce que je ne vous ennuie pas ? A quoi vous amusez vous ? Apprend-re, 4. ir. to Banquier, m. banker. Demeur-er, 1. to dwell. We often deceive ourselves while Is not your clerk mistaken? That merchant deceives everybody. You weary your friends by your complaints. Do I not weary you? 1. Aimez vous à demeurer à la campagne? 2. Je préfère la campagne à la ville. 3. Vous ennuyez vous souvent à la cam4. Quand je m'ennuie à la campagne, je reviens à la pagne? ville. 5. Reçoit on des nouvelles du Général L.? 6. On n'entend pas parler de lui. 7. Vous trompez vous quelquefois ? 8. Tout le monde se trompe quelquefois. 9. Le banquier trompe-t-il ses clients? 10. Il ne trompe ni ses clients ni ses amis, il ne trompe personne. 11. Ne vous trompez vous pas dans ce mémoire? 12. Je ne me trompe pas. 13. Vous amusez vous à lire ou à écrire? 14. Je m'amuse à apprendre l'allemand et le français. 15. Avez vous tort d'apprendre les langues? 16. J'ai raison de les apprendre. 17. 18. Je m'ennuie quand je n'ai Vous ennuyez vous souvent? rien à faire. 19. A quoi vous amusez vous quand vous êtes à 20. Nous nous promenons le matin, et nous la campagne ? travaillons le reste de la journée. 21. Vous portez vous tou22. Nous sommes quelquefois malades. 23. En24. Nous l'envoyons jours bien ? voyez vous chercher le médecin ? 25. Je vais le chercher. chercher. not intend to deceive him. 9. Does not the merchant make a PHENOMENA OF VOLCANIC VENTS AND CONES. IN the crater of a volcano, and on the sides of a volcanic mountain, there are generally a great number of smaller vents, which emit nothing but aqueous vapours and corrosive gases. In the crater itself the lava may be burning and boiling for years, without either an eruption of scoriæ or an overflow of lava, as you will find represented in fig. 11 of a former lesson. In this case a multitude of small conical vents are formed, which rise out of the cooled surface of the melted lava; and these vents are constantly giving out volumes of smoke and sulphuric acid gas. Such a vent is called in Europe a Fumerole, or Moffet; and in Mexico, a Hornito, or small oven. Besides these vents which are found within the circumsometimes on the wall of the crater, and sometimes on the sides ference of the boiling crater, there are other vents produced, of the mountain. These are formed by the jets of scoriæ thrown up, and which in falling accumulate around the mouth of the vent, as represented in fig. 14. reach the summit of Vesuvius from Naples, you arrive at a lofty cone. As you ascend the sloping sides of this cone, the whole appears to you to be nothing but a heap of loose materials, a mere heap of rubbish, thrown down and about in a disorderly manner. But when you reach the edge of the crater, and look on the cliffs stretching before you in the opposite walls of the chasm, you find that the volcanic materials, which have been successively thrown up, have been disposed in regular beds or strata, corresponding, first of all, with the sloping or dipping sides of the original cone, and then with the various volcanic envelopes which have mantled over the preceding bed of cooled lava. If you look to our woodcut, Jorullo, fig. 13, you will find, on the left of the crater how regularly these beds of lava overlap or envelop one another. scattered blocks of lava and various heaps of cinders. The bottom of this plain was penetrated by various cracks or fissures, through which columns of vapour and struggling gases were constantly escaping. In October, 1822, a series of detonations, and of loud explosions, took place, and continued for nearly a month. The force from below broke up this rocky plain of lava blocks at the bottom, and hurled them all into the air, so as to leave behind a tremendous gulph or chasm of irregular form, but above three miles long, and three-fourths of a mile across, and stretching from north-east to south-west. Its depth was at first stupendous. It was supposed to be two thousand feet-about half the depth of Snowdon. As, however, the walls or cliffs of the crater continued to fall in, the gulph became eventually less than half that depth. When this action of the volcano commenced, the summit of the cone around the crater was 4,200 feet high; but through the powerful activity of the fire such prodigious masses of the lofty mountain were Fig. 15. Suppose yourself to stand on a ledge of the lava rocks represented on the left of the foreground in fig. 15. Here you have a full view of the boiling crater below, and of the vents or fumeroles of different heights formed by the fall of jetted materials. The Crater of Vesuvius, as seen by H. Abich, in 1834, showing the Fumeroles or conical vents. This crater of Vesuvius is perpetually changing its form. Before the year 1631, what you now see as a burning crater was an awful dingle or cleuch, five miles in circumference, and about one thousand feet deep. On the sides of yonder cliffs, a forest of brushwood grew luxuriantly; and, on the bottom where you now see the lake of glowing lava, there was a fine plain, furnishing grass on which cattle browsed. In this plain there were three pools of water: one hot and bitter; the second, salter than sea water; and the third, hot, but without any taste. But in December, 1631, the whole forest of brushwood on the sides, and the whole plain of grass at the bottom, were blown up into the air with fearful explosions. The volcano then rested for some years. Again. Between 1800 and 1822, this vast crater was becoming gradually filled up by lava boiling upwards from below, and also by jets of cinders and ashes, which were falling down from the smaller vents which had been formed both in the centre of the crater, and on the sides or ledges of the cliffs. The result was, that, instead of a deep, regular cavity, there appeared once more at the bottom a rugged, rocky plain. covered with worn down, that its elevation was reduced to that of 3,400 feet. Our woodcut, fig. 15, represents Vesuvius as it was seen by H. Abich, in 1834, after the eruption of the preceding year. In that year the great crater had been filled up nearly to the brim with lava, which had swelled up from beneath, and which had consolidated, and had formed a plain, level and unbroken, except in one spot, where a small cone had been thrown up by the eruption of scoriæ, and which now appeared in the plain as a small island in a lake. Eventually this plain of consolidated lava was, once more, burst into a fissure, which passed from north-east to southwest. Along the line of this fissure very numerous small cones were formed, and which, as represented in fig. 15, emitted vapour and scoriæ. It was supposed, at first, that these smaller cones began to be formed by a swelling from below, which caused an upheaval of the beds of lava previously resting horizontally; and that this upheaval continued until the bed snapped, and allowed the gases and vapours to escape through the vent in the centre. This supposition was not established by fact. In 1834, a great subsidence of the lava that had filled the crater took place; in consequence of which the whole formation of the central cone was brought to light. It was then seen that the cone had not been formed by upheaval, but by the fall of cinders and ashes around the Fig. 16. mind or understanding, and from thence participated by inferior minds and souls."-Cudworth. This word arch (from arché) is found also pronounced in the ordinary English manner, as in archbishop, that is, a chief bishop, the chief bishop of a province. In its signification of chief it is used also to denote something questionable, bad, or humorous. "Doggett thanked me, and after his comic manner spoke his request with so arch a leer that I promised," &c.-Tatler. "Come, tell us honestly, Frank,' said the squire with his usual archness, suppose the church, your present mistress, drest in lawn sleeves, on one hand, and Miss Sophia, with no lawn about her, on the other, which would you be for?" "-Goldsmith. Auto, of Greek origin, equivalent to self, is found in autocrat (from auto and Gr. kratia, power, government), one who governs of himself and by himself; hence autocracy is arbitrary power, despotism. "The divine will is absolute; t is its own reason; it is both the producer and the ground of all its acts. It moves not by the external impulse, or inclination of objects, but determines itself by an absolute autocracy."-South. Be, of Saxon origin, in the forms be and by, connected probably with the verb to be and the preposition by, denoting the active power or agent, as a prefix, performs the part of an intensive, and increases, sometimes, in a bad sense, the inherent import of a word; e. g.-beloved; bedaub; besmear; bepraise. In other cases, it The structure of a conical vent after volcanic activity has ceased, seems to do little more than aid in forming words; as an adverb as seen in the crater of Vesuvius. mouth of the vent. . Its structure after the volcanic fire had been withdrawn is represented in fig. 16., which may be regarded as its skeleton. The facts stated, and the principles inveved in this Lesson, will be found of importance, when you come to study the geobgical theory about dikes of lava or basalt, which are discovered n the masses, or in the beds, of other rocks. You will find it a good intellectual exercise to imagine that fig. 16, instead of representing a small fumerole, represents a volcanic mountain itself. It was once filled with melted matter, but that is withdrawn, and the volcano has become extinct. It was once covered and enveloped by sand and scoriæ; but since then, rains and torrents have washed away the loose sand and volcanic mud, and only the more hard and the more solid materials of the mountain is left. Mountains of this structure are constantly met with, not only in France and Sicily, but in England, Scotland, and and, as you will find in the progress of these Lessons. LESSONS IN ENGLISH.-No. IX. out of an adjective; as behind (hind, hinder); before; below: beneath. The adverb betimes (early) is made up of by and time, bytime; that is, in time. "He that goes out betimes in the morning, is more like to dispatch his journey than he that lingers till the day be spent."-Bishop Hall. By means also, near; as, "stand by me." "And as he (Jesus) passed by he saw Levi" (Mark ii. 14). Hence the phrase by and by denoted immediately, as may be seen in Mark vi. 25; in which, and in other passages of Scripture, it is the representation of a Greek word which signifies, straightway, forthwith. The repetition of the by may have had emphasis for its object. Hence is explained the word by-stander; that is, one who stands near. At present, by and by seems in conversation to intimate some little distance of time from the actual moment. Bene, a prefix of Latin origin (from bonus, good, bene, well), is found in union with words of Latin origin; thus with facio, I do, and its parts facere, factum (in combination a may pass Ire-into i), it forms benefaction, benefit, beneficial, beneficent; so in union with dico, I say (dicere, dictum), bene forms benediction, and with volo, I am willing, it forms benevolent. Hence, one who is benevolent, is one who wishes well; and one who is beneficent, is one who does well; a benediction, is a good word, a blessing; and a benefaction, is a good deed, a gift. The opposite prefix is male, ill or evil. The contrast is well illustrated in these words, where, as in other instances, the old spelling is retained, as offering so many historical facts: Apo, of Greek origin, from; as, apostle (apo, from, and stello, I send); that is, a person sent from one to another, a messenger. Apo has the force of our English prefix un, as in uncover. This is its exact import in the word apocalypse (apo and kalupto (Greek), I conceal), a revelation; that is, according to the Latin, an unveiling; and according to the Greek, an uncovering. "O for that warning voice which he who saw Milton. Th' apocalypse, heard cry in heaven aloud." Arch (ch sounded like k) of Greek origin (from arché, a beginning), in the forms arch, arche, and archy, denotes the origin, the head, and hence government. It is the second syllable in monarch, monarchy; and as the letter which in Greek represents the ch is pronounced like k, arch thus introduces a Greek pronunciation into our tongue. Hence you may learn the error which pronounces architect (from arché, first, or head, and tekton, a maker or builder), as if its arch was pronounced like the monosyllabic word srch; that is, the arch in a building. Besides a type and an antitype theology recognises an archetype, or original type, an original mould or model, in which, in virtue of which, and after the likeness of which, all created beings were formed, as was taught by the Greek philosopher Plato. "There were other objects of the mind, universal, eternal, immutable, which they called original ideas, all originally contained in one archetypal "The kyng willing to show that this benefit was to hym much acceptable, and not worthy to be put in oblivion, called this grant of money a benevolence, notwithstanding that many with grudge and malevolence gave great summes toward the new foude (found) benevolence."— Hall, "Edward IV." Bi, in the forms of bi and his, of Latin origin (bis, twice), has in English the force of two or twice; biped (pes, Lat. a foot), twofooted; biscuit (cuire, Fr. to cook), twice-cooked. "The inconvenience attending the form of the year above mentioned, was in a great measure remedied by the Romans in the time of Julius Cæsar, who added one day every fourth year; which (from the place of its insertion,-viz. (namely), after the sixth of the calends of March) was called bissextile or leap-year."-Priestley, on History. Cata, of Greek origin (kata, Gr. down), properly denotes motion in a downward direction, and oppears in the word cataract (from Gr. kata and regnumi, I break), which, according to its derivation, signifies a breaking-down; that is, of the rock which leads to a downfall of water. This prefix is found in other words of Greek origin, as in cataclysm (from Gr. kata and kludzein, to waste away), a term applied to the deluge. "The catacombs are subterranean streets or galleries from four to eight feet in height, and from two to five in breadth, extending to an immense and almost unknown length, and branching out into various walks under the city of Rome)."-Eustace," Italy." Co, as in coalesce (from eo, and aleo, Lat. I gros), to grow together; it is found in the derivatives coalescence, valition. “ No coosition which, under the specious name of independency, carries in ita boom the unreconestie principles of the orginal decord of parties, ever was or wui be, a healing coalition.”—Burke, on the Nation.” Cog, as in cognate from cog, and natus, Lat. born), born with, of the same family or kind; eog is found also in cognition (Lat. com, with, and nosco, I kwno), kwneledge; a means of knowing, a cognizance or toxen; "For which cause men imagined that he gave the sunne in his fuli unghicees for his cogninnence or badge."-Hail, Henry IV." Col, as in colloquial (Lat, cam, with, and loquor, I speak), re-¦ lating to conversation; as also in collusion from col, and ludo, Lat. I play, a playing together; that is, to deceive. “Well, let us now leve the cloked collusion that remayned in France, and return to the open diammulation which now appeared in Englande." - Hall," Henry VI" Com, as in commemorate (from com, and memor, Lat. mindful, to keep in mind, to recall to mind; found in commensurate, comminute, commute, compact, &c. "A different spinning every different web Dyer, "Fleece." Cor, as in correct (from cor, and rego, Lat. I rule), and correspond, corrode, corrupt, corrugate (from cor, and ruga, Lat. a wrinkle). "The full lips, the rough tongue, the corrugate cartilaginous palate, the broad, cutting teeth of the ox, the deer, the horse, and the sheep, qualify this tribe for browsing upon their pasture.”— Paley, “ Natural Theology." Contra, of Latin origin (contra, over against), as in contraband (bannum, low Lat. a decree, law), against the law, smuggled; and in contradict, contrary. Contra appears in another form,-namely, counter, counterfeit (from counter, contre, and faire, Fr. to make), and in counterpane, a covering. "On which a tissue counterpane was cast, CO-INSTRUCTION SOCIETIES. It appears that societies of this kind have existed in the north of Scotland for years past. We have now lying before us the second annual report of the Aberdeen and Banffshire" Mutual Instruction Union." This union consists of a number of associated classes, in the districts which give name to the union, and its object is to cultivate friendship and co-operation among a, and to promote the establiment of Manual Instruction Claws, i frourite pains. The anim does not merfere with the management of the Classes; a moosets of telequa tris the time a mommme formed fun mese dete pues, and x-aren vic EET WILL report proFree. The te den grass for the best sits on prescribed Fubjects, such as - Female Edanom ni Trang -- The Imrance of Provident For The AcTantages of Manual Instruction From this report, there appears to be formen Metal Instruction Societes na via the Union, which have ambered 500 members fram the commencement of their career 1846,, and have now did members on the FOG-the rage attendance bang 2. Nearly 1,000 essays have been read fiose their comment to the members of the classes, they have nearly 1.ad vaates in their Stranies. The but some possess galvand ballens and apparios; others a branches taught are candy rearing, writing, and anthmetic; geological onectado; and others a microscope. The members are chiefly of the bumbier class, and it is highly creditable to them that such an amount of good seems to be doing among them by this means, Considering that about half of these marcal classes meet only once a week, and the other half but once a fortnight, it seems wonderful that they have been able to succeed in the the roll which consists of agneulturists is 149, and of mechanics manner they have done. The proportion of the members on 67; the rest are various. We give the following extract from the report of one of the societies recently admitted into the union : dually increased, and, daring the first summer, the proceedings the following just observations upon it :— There appears to have been a period of decline, similar to that noticed in this extract, in the history of most of the societies with which we are acquainted. The novelty, incident on the formation of such a society, having passed away, the ardour of those who had connected themselves with it, partly from this novelty, and partly expecting to find in it a royal road to learning-a sort of intellectual California, where the pure gold of knowledge might be had with comparative ease-their ardour (we say) is damped, and their attendance at the meetings becomes irregular. Selfeducation-the grand object of our societies-even with all the aids which mutual instruction supplies, is not to be attained degree of mental exertion must be made-reading, study, and under such conditions as these gentlemen have supposed. Some composition must be engaged in, to some extent, by those who continue any length of time members of our societies. There is for some time, in the parties we have mentioned, a struggle going on between the innate mental inactivity, and the thirst for knowledge, excited by attendance at the meetings; and according as the one or the other of these antagonistic principles obtains the mastery, so will those who are the subjects of this contest, meet no more with their fellow-members, or continue to go onwards. The loss sustained in this latter case, is, to the individual withdrawing, although he may esteem it lightly, really a heavy one; to the Society which he leaves it is simply numerical, and ought to exercise no discouraging influence on the rest of its members. It does happen sometimes, as is noticed in the extract, that the decline is caused by the removal from the locality of some of the more active and able members; but let there be in any society, half-a-dozen young men, devoted to its interests, and determined, under every discouragement, to pursue their efforts at self and mutual improvement, and we hesitate not to affirm, that such a society WILL grow in numbers, in influence, and in usefulness. That which seemed to be wanting to stir up these mutual instruction societies to active operation we have at length supplied. The reading of the POPULAR EDUCATOR is the very means which should be used to keep all the members together, and to excite them to active exertion. Here is at last food sufficient for every mind; and all that they have to do is to get into a regular system of mutual instruction from its pages. To read a lesson from this work to the assembled class, to discuss its merits with the class, to give your own opinion, and to hear their opinions on any given subject or question, is the way to create a lively interest in the minds of all. While this is going on in the class, you are learning something of real value, something that will be of the greatest use to you through life. We hope these societies will take these hints in good part, and act upon them at once; and, when they have made a fair trial, we have no fear of the result. We shall be glad to hear from them at a future perfod. SOLUTIONS OF PROBLEMS AND QUERIES. CORRESPONDENCE. SIR,--Amongst the many who visited the Great Exhibition, I was one. Surrounded by the specimens of modern art, wonderfully beautiful and perfect, the inventive, or rather imitative, faculties were marvellously stimulaced within me, and I thought within myself, manibus pedibusque So, perambulating the aliquid conabor, recte aut secus, jacta est alea. building with these ideas pleasantly floating in my mind, I chanced to come where some large globes were exhibited, made by Newton, Fleetstreet, or somebody else, which arrested my attention. Having felt the want of a pair for a long time, being deterred from buying them, owing to their high price, I determined, on my return to the country, to set about making a pair. I first began a globe three feet in diameter, and got the shell made, an agricultural labourer and country blacksmith being my only assistants; but when this shell was finished. I found it was too large, several doors refusing it admission; even the room in which it was made denied it egress. Well, I made another of 2 feet 1 inch diameter. I agreed with a cabinet-maker to make the stand and horizon; and with a brass-founder and engraver to make the meridian and to engrave it. I proposed, by hiring or borrowing a globe of small dimensions, to delineate the surface myself, lay down the countries, and print all the letters with the pen; but when I came to consider the thousands of letters I should have to make, and the great draft it would make the necessary hours of sleep, I abandoned this part of my undertaking. upon my time, which I could ill spare, except by detracting from I said I will buy a printed cover, ready to my hand, and stick it upon my shell, carefully constructed in the spherical form, and made smoota to receive it. Accordingly, I deputed a friend to buy me one in London. He called on three different globe-makers; but, to my great disappointment and sorrow, they each and all respectfully declined selling the cover. They answered the inquiry by saying that they must make the whole globe themselves, otherwise they would make no part of it. He was shown some fine specimens three feet in diameter, at thirty guineas the pair. This price is monstrous! How could a poor man ever expect to treat himself to such a costly article, however desirous he may be to enlarge the sphere of his knowledge in this direction. Now, I will presume to state, and that presumption shall be founded in much truthfulness, that an ordinary mechanic, under the guidance of, or with a few hints from, a scientific person, could make just as good a pair, for all practical purposes, as those alluded to, at a much smaller sum, the printing of the covers alone excepted; and assuredly in these THE parties in this question are to pay not in direct proportion to days of printing and map-making, when the art has arrived at such pertheir distances from the church, but in reciprocal proportion to those fection, the arrangement of type, to print covers for globes to suit any distances. Now the reciprocal of any fraction is that fraction in-diameters, is surely not a secret known only to a few of the trade. This is a literary monopoly that should not be allowed to maintain its selfish verted, and of any integer or whole number is unity divided by that position. integer. In like manner, the reciprocal of a mixed number is unity divided by that mixed number. The numbers in question, or distances, are 2, 23 or, and 3 or . The reciprocals of these numbers are 4, 5, and. It is, therefore, in the proportion of these numbers that the money, £165 5s., is to be contributed. The sum of these fractional numbers is found by reducing them to a common denominator; thus,— I have written this letter to solicit your advice and assistance, and shall feel obliged and thankful by your noticing the matter in the "EDUCATOR," in the hope of its attracting the attention of some kind and skilful correspondent, whose suggestions, auxiliary with your own, Indeed the instruments may enable me to surmount my difficulty. manufactured by opticians for scientific purposes are all inordinately high priced; and why they are so it is difficult to assign a reason, sufficiently valid, unless it be to place them beyond the reach of those who are contemptuously styled the profanum vulgus. Their manufactured articles realise an enormous profit, say from 6 to 9 hundred per cent. It is true that the manufacture consists of nearly all manual labour; but this labour is performed by mechanics, who do not get extraordinary wages. OPIFEX. [We have inserted this letter because we think the author is entitled to consideration for his manly attempt to execute one of the most useful apparatus ever invented for the illustration of the science of Geography. Printed covers for globes ought to be sold with the utmost readiness to any one who chooses to take the trouble to construct them. There can The sum of these fractions being 32, we have these proportious, be no reason in the world why they should not, except a wish to monoor statements, in the Rule of Three, polise an extraordinary profit. The remarks about the instruments like stereotype. LITERARY NOTICE. CASSELL'S SHILLING EDITION OF EUCLID. THE ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY, Containing the First Six, and the Eleventh and Twelfth Books of Euclid, from the text of Robert Simson, M.D., Emeritus Professor of Mathematics in the University of Glasgow; with Corrections, Annotations, and Exercises, by Robert Wallace, A.M., of the same university, and Collegiate Tutor of the University of London, will be ready with the magazines for August, price 18. in stiff covers, or 18. 6d. neat cloth. |