stincts. It is not a work of art but a growth. Society evolves from natural forces like an animal or a plant.

With Plato society had its origin in the nature of the mind which perceives advantage in social adjustment. This foreshadows the later doctrines of the social contract. With Aristotle society originated in those natural impulses which create the family, the tribe, the village and the state. This leads to the modern organic concept of social origins.

Plato sat in the comfortable home of his friend Polemarchus in the Piraeus and constructed his city from the materials contained in his mind and in the minds of his companions, appealing to reason to support his theories.

Aristotle collected one hundred fifty or more constitutions of Hellenic and barbarian states, and deduced there from a thesis which he confirmed by a comparative study of existing Greek and non-Greek communities.

Plato emphasized chiefly the psychic factors of civilization while Aristotle stressed the physical and biologic factors.

Notwithstanding these characteristic differences, some of which may have been somewhat overstressed for the sake of bringing them into bold relief, Plato and Aristotle unite finally in presenting to us each in his own way in The Republic and in The Politics the most complete philosophy of human life and society to be found outside the sociological writings of the present day.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aristotle, The Politics, Tr. by Jowett, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1885. Barker, Ernest, The Political Thought of Plato and Aristotle, Putnam, New York, 1906.

Dunning, W. A., Political Theories, Ancient and Medieval, Macmillan, New York, 1902.

Ellwood, C. A., Aristotle as a Sociologist, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, March, 1902.

Giddings, F. H., Democracy and Empire, Macmillan, New York, 1901. Loos, Isaac A., Studies in the Politics of Aristotle and The Republic of Plato, University Press, Iowa City, 1899.

Newbold, W. 'R., The Spell of Aristotle, University of Pennsylvania Lectures, 1914-1915.

TOPICS FOR CRITICAL STUDY

1. Compare Aristotle's theory of the origin of society with that of Plato as presented in the previous chapter. Cf. H. E. Barnes, Sociology before Comte, American Journal of Sociology, Vol. XXIII, Sept. 1917, pp. 179-81.

2. Discuss the relation of the individual to society in The Republic and in The Politics and compare these with C. H. Cooley's theory in Human Nature and the Social Order, Ch. I.

3. What evidence is there in this chapter or in a more complete study of The Politics to justify Dunning in the statement that Aristotle is not purely inductive? Cf. W. A. Dunning, Political Theories, Ancient and Medieval, p. 51.

4. Is Aristotle correct in his criticism that Plato advocates a unity which, if realized, would destroy the state?

5. Contrast the views of Plato and Aristotle in regard to the equality or inferiority of women as compared with men.

6. Compare Aristotle's explanation of the effect of geographic and climatic factors on civilization with that of Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws, Vol. I, Books XIV-XVIII. Also Buckle, History of Civilization in England, Ch. II.

7. Is Montesquieu correct in his criticism of Aristotle's views on slavery? Are his views more in harmony with modern concepts? Cf. The Spirit of the Laws, Vol. I, Book XV (especially Ch. VII). 8. Discuss the chief characteristics of Aristotle's program of education emphasized by F. H. Giddings in Democracy and Empire, Ch. XIV.

CHAPTER III

LATE GREEK AND EARLY ROMAN WRITERS

THE

HISTORIC BACKGROUND

HE disintegration of the Macedonian Empire began at once upon the death of Alexander, in 323 B.C. Perdiccas, whom the conqueror chose upon his death-bed to become his successor, proved incapable of the task. Several empires arose from the ruins but none was able to cope either with the forces of internal strife or with the rapidly rising power of the new empire of the West. The Greeks, always in a state of chronic revolt against Macedonian control, rebelled upon the news of Alexander's death and carried on for two years the unsuccessful Ionian War. The final attempt to restore Grecian independence resulted in the organization of the Achaean and Aetolian Leagues in 281 and 280 respectively. The former comprised a federation of the cities of Achaea and the Peloponnesus. The latter was little more than a league of the half civilized tribes of the mountainous interior for military purposes. For nearly a century and a half some semblance of political independence was maintained, but with the destruction of Corinth, the most important city of Greece since the fall of Athens, the Leagues were destroyed and Greece became a Roman province. Thus ended the long and spectacular drama of ancient Grecian civilization.

The scene now shifts to the Italian peninsula. For several centuries there had been growing up through the consolidation of various racial groups inhabiting Latium, the region south of the Tiber, a virile and powerful state which was destined to eclipse the Persian and Macedonian empires and to rival Greece itself in its influence upon the course of civilization.

<From the legendary founding of Rome in 753 B.C. there appears to have been a progressive development of government in the hands of kings, at first little more than powerful tribal chieftains, who because of increasing tyranny were expelled in 509, only one year later than the expulsion of the tyrants from Athens.

The period of the Republic from 509 to 31 was one of expansion and national integration. The first century and a half was consumed

in border warfare with surrounding nations but through the successful Romanization of Southern Etruria by 396, the expulsion of the Gauls who sacked Rome in 390, the overthrow of the Etruscan power, the success of the Samnite wars and the conquering of Tarentum, Rome by 272 had become complete mistress of Italy south of the Arnos and the Rubicon, and a thirst for further conquest had been created.

Her most formidable rival was the Carthaginian Empire embracing the south shore of the Mediterranean from the greater Syrtis to the Pillars of Hercules, and including Southern Spain, Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily, with the exception of Syracuse.

In 264 Rome obtained a foothold in Sicily and in 256 made a brilliant but unsuccessful attempt to capture Syracuse. After two disastrous naval attempts the Romans finally destroyed the Carthaginian fleet and challenged successfully Phoenician supremacy on the Mediterranean which had been held for centuries. A treaty of peace was signed in 241 by which Carthage agreed to pay heavy indemnities.

Rome now realized the necessity of the control of the sea. Sardinia and Corsica were conquered and made Roman provinces, and Illyrian pirates were driven from the Adriatic. Meanwhile the Gauls were subdued in Northern Italy and the Roman boundaries were extended to the Alps.

The Carthaginians now decided to recoup their losses by further conquests in Spain. Hannibal acceded to the command in 221 and in two years pushed the Carthaginian boundaries to the Ebro. In 219 he attacked the city of Saguntum on the East coast, a city under the Roman protectorate, and thus precipitated the second Punic war. Crossing the Alps in the fall of 218 he advanced upon Italy, defeating the Roman armies at Ticinus, Trebbia and Cannae. Capua, having seceded, offered Hannibal quarters where he awaited reinforcements from Spain. Meanwhile the Romans laid siege to Syracuse, an ally of Carthage, and in 212 the city was destroyed. Hasdrubal, in an attempt to reinforce his brother Hannibal, was defeated at Metaurus; Scipio drove the Carthaginians out of Spain and led an army into Africa. Hannibal was recalled from Italy to protect Carthage and at Zama met his first and final defeat. Carthage was again compelled to sue for peace.

The victorious Romans next turned their attention to the punishment of Philip V of Macedon for his friendly alliance with Hannibal. Philip was defeated in Thessaly and required to free all Greek cities. under his dominion. The war was then carried into Syria and by the defeat of Antiochus the Great, the larger part of Asia Minor passed in