BIBLIOGRAPHY

Browning, Oscar, Dante, His Life and Writings, Sonnenschein, London, 1891.

Bryce, James, The Holy Roman Empire, Macmillan, New York, 1907. Church, R. W., Dante, with Tr. of De Monarchia by F. C. Church, Macmillan, New York, 1878.

Dunning, W. A., Political Theories, Ancient and Medieval, Macmillan, New York, 1902.

Dunning, W. A., Political Theories, Luther to Montesquieu, Macmillan, New York, 1913.

Gierke, Otto F., Political Theories of the Middle Ages, by Maitland, Cambridge University Press, 1900.

Littlejohn, J. M., The Political Theories of the Schoolmen and Grotius, Columbia University Thesis, 1896.

Poole, R. L., Illustrations of the History of Medieval Thought, Williams, London, 1884.

Robinson, J. H., History of Western Europe, Ginn, Boston, 1903. Rogers, A. K., Student's History of Philosophy, Macmillan, New York, 1909.

Smith, A. M., Grounds of Non-Catholic Freedom in the Summa Theologiae of Thomas Aquinas, Donnelley, Chicago, 1905.

Smith, H. I., Classification of Desires in St. Thomas and in Modern Sociology (Thesis), Catholic University of America, 1915.

Tout, T. F., The Empire and the Papacy, Macmillan, New York, 1899. Vaughn, R. B., The Life and Labors of St. Thomas Aquinas, Longman, London, 1871.

TOPICS FOR CRITICAL STUDY

1. Trace the factors of history which led to the revival of social philosophy in the middle ages. Does this establish the contention that social philosophy reflects the life of the times?

2. What was the influence of Aristotle upon Thomas and Dante? What were the chief influences in bringing this about? What influence did humanism exert? Cf. Robinson, History of Western Europe, pp. 271-3; also 329-37.

3. To what extent are the philosophic and scientific elements blended in the work of Thomas? Of Dante?

4. How far do the four orders of law in the analysis of Thomas conform to the modern concepts of philosophy, science, politics, and religion? Trace the origin of these concepts in the writers reviewed so far.

5. How does the scholastic theory of law differ from those of Greek philosophy and Roman jurisprudence? Cf. W. A. Dunning, Political Theories, Ancient and Medieval, pp. 192-7.

6. Compare Thomas's theory of the origin of Society with those of Aristotle, Plato, Cicero, and Seneca. Cf. J. M. Littlejohn, The Political Theories of the Schoolmen and Grotius.

7. What support did Thomas afford in his theory of law for the doctrine of "divine right of kings"? Cf. W. A. Dunning, op. cit., pp. 176-81.

8. What basis is laid in Dante's doctrines of the "two powers" for the theory of the Protestant reformers in regard to the separation of Church and State? Cf. W. A. Dunning, Political Theories, Luther to Montesquieu, Ch. I.

9. Contrast clearly the divergent methods proposed by Thomas and Dante for ending the strife between the two powers.

10. What significant contribution to social theory at this period was made by the Arabian historian and statesman, Ibn Khaldun? Cf. H. E. Barnes, Sociology Before Comte, American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 23, Sept., 1917, pp. 197-8; also, for further description Flint, History of Philosophy of History in France, pp. 158 ff.

What essential differences are found between this and Thomas and
Dante?

II. What roots are found in this period and following for the development of utopian social thought? Cf. E. S. Bogardus, History of Social Thought, Ch. X.

CHAPTER VI

NICCOLO MACHIAVELLI

HISTORIC DEVELOPMENTS

O more striking evidence of the backward look of social philosophy probably can be found than that presented during the 14th and 15th centuries. St. Thomas and Dante furnished no guide for the future. Acute as their observations were they affected but little, if at all, the future trend of events. While the struggle continued for a time in both Church and State to establish a universal authority in theory at least, conditions were developing which pointed in the opposite direction. A few of these may be summarized briefly.

Conspicuous among these changes was the growth of national states. Absolute national monarchy as an ideal was replacing the world imperialistic philosophy of the past. The power of feudalism, so important in the medieval period, was everywhere being broken by the rise of strong rulers, who if they could not obliterate this ancient system, were still able to organize the institutions of government upon a national basis.

The Hundred Years' War finally separated France and England and ultimately increased the power of both as national states. Each in turn gained ascendency over the great feudal families; the former being unified under Louis XI, and the latter, after the War of the Roses, under Henry VII. The Kingdom of Spain came into separate national existence through the alliance of Castile and Aragon under Ferdinand and Isabella, and Maximilian was endeavoring, though with less. obvious success, to unify the conflicting interests of the feudal states of Germany. It was an era of strong men, when personal ability to achieve, embodied in a dominating will, was more impressive than a theory of an Imperial government or a Universal church.

Another element of social change was the rise of towns throughout Western Europe. As commerce and industry grew and a middle class developed and multiplied, there clustered about the feudal castles groups of dwellings occupied by petty merchants, traders, and artisans. These increased in size and importance until many of them.

were sufficiently powerful to demand free charters from the lords, and on the economic side constituted an important factor in the overthrow of feudalism. This movement was a part of the general evolution of society which created the individual. It evolved new classes of citizens. It provided monarchs with new and powerful allies in their struggle with the landed nobility. It furnished largely the source of a hired professional soldiery, so important in the early monarchial period, and from it emerged a new leisure class in which art and letters were an active concern. In short we observe here the rise to social and political self-consciousness of that portion of the population now rapidly increasing, which for centuries had been without significance and against whose oppression and sufferings no effective voice of protest had been raised. In Germany with the collapse of imperial authority, the towns acquired practical independence, while in Italy, under widely different conditions, they assumed the proportion of free city states such as Florence, Milan, Naples, Venice and a host of others of lesser importance.

A third condition developed within the Papacy. The conflict between Boniface and Philip the Fair of France over the taxation of Church property, resulted disastrously for the Pope and upon his death in 1305 Philip secured the appointment of the Archbishop of Bordeaux as Pope Clement V and transferred the seat of the Papacy to France, where it remained at Avignon for seventy-two years, a period known as the "Babylonian captivity." In 1377, Pope Gregory XI returned to Rome, where he died the following year. The Roman populace compelled the cardinals, most of whom were French, to elect Urban VI. When Urban refused to return to France, the cardinals withdrew from Rome, and declaring that they had been intimidated in the election of Urban chose Clement VII, who went at once to Avignon. Urban selected a new college of cardinals and remained at Rome. This was the beginning of the great Schism which lasted for another forty years. There were now two reigning Popes. Each claimed to be the rightful vicar of Christ and defended his claims by attempting to depose the other. Early in the conflict the University of Paris advocated a Council of Christendom to settle the difficulty on the theory that such a Council, as for instance, Nicea in 325, was superior to the Pope. At length in 1409 such a Council was convened at Pisa and Alexander V was chosen Pope. Neither of the reigning Popes recognized the decree of the Council and for eight years more there were three heads of the Church instead of two. A second great Council was convened in Constance in