ployed for the purpose of scientific definition; and secondly, whether history, when carefully interrogated, really sanctions the idea that the hue of any race is permanent and unalterable-or whether there are not examples to the contrary, in which a decided change has taken place. Before we enter, however, upon this inquiry, it may be proper to submit a few general considerations upon the structure of the coloring tissue of the animal skin, and upon the value of color as a zoological character. We are accustomed to say that color is "only skin-deep" but in point of fact it is not even skin-deep; for it does not reach the true skin, being entirely confined to the epidermis or scarf-skin. It was formerly supposed that, between the true skin and scarfskin, there lay a proper coloring layer, to which the term ele mucosum was given; and it was imagined that this layer was greatly developed in the dark-skinned races, but nearly wanting in those of fair complexion. This account of it, however, when submitted to the test of microscopic inquiry, has been found to be totally incorrect. fairness. The effect of such exposure varies, besides, according to the complexion of the individnal. Fair skins become of a reddish brown; and those in which there was previously any tinge of a black or swarthy hue (such as we often meet with in individuals even of the fairest races, in whose veins there is not the slightest intermixture of Negro blood,) become much more swarthy. While the influence of light is perceived to be greatly modified by the complexion of the individual, the complexion itself is sensibly liable to variation within the limits of families-much more, therefore, of races. This is a matter of familiar observation; two children of the same parents being frequently the one a blonde, the other a brunette. Further, it is not uncommon to find, in individuals of the fair races, large patches of the surface almost as deeply colored as the skin of the Negro. On the other hand, albinoism, that is, the total absence of color in the skin, is occasionally seen in dark races as well as fair. A curious case lately fell under our cognizance in which both these aberrations were combined thy, had been becoming darker for some years; but there were light patches on the face and body, in which there was a total absence of pigment; whilst, as if to compensate for these, peculiarly dark patches came out elsewhere. As the existence of colorless patches on the face produced a disagreeable disfigurement, an attempt was made to re-excite the chromatogenous function by stimulating applications. The attempt, however, was unfortunately rather too successful; for although the parts thus treated at first assumed the hue of the general surface, they did not remain in that state, but became in the end of the color of the spots which were previously the most deeply tinged. If Voltaire is to be believed, no well--the hue of the skin, naturally rather swarinformed person, formerly, passed by Leyden, without seeing a part of the black membrane (the reticulum mucosum) of a Negro, dissected by the celebrated Ruysch: the other part had been carried away to Petersburgh by Peter the Great. Their error, however, is now universally admitted. The "rete mucosum" has been discovered to be nothing but the latest layer of epidermis, the inner surface of which is continually being renewed as the exterior is worn away, just like the bark of a tree. There is no distinct coloring layer, it appears, either in the fair or the dark-skinned races; the peculiar hue of the latter depending upon the presence of coloring matter in the cells of the epidermis itself. Now, that this coloring matter may be generated even in the fairest skins, under the influence of light and warmth, we have a familiar proof in the summer freckle, which is nothing else than a local production of that which in some races is general. Persons who have been much exposed to the direct rays of the sun, become "tanned" or "sunburnt" in like manner, owing to the formation of coloring particles in the cells of the epidermis, which are usually almost colorless. The face and hands, for instance, frequently undergo a considerable alteration in hue, while the parts of the body, which are habitually covered, retain their original These facts will suffice to prove that any distinctions drawn from a character so superficial, and so little liable to modification from external circumstances, as the hue of the skin, must be received with great caution. This is well known to the naturalist, who entirely discards it in every case in which the least tendency to spontaneous variation is shown. It is quite true that there are instances in which he considers it a sufficient indication of permanent diversity of race, that is, of distinctness of species; for example, there are many butterflies and moths which can scarcely be distinguished from each other by any other character than the form, situation, and color of certain spots upon their wings. But these spots are found to be constantly present-to have precisely the same form, situation, and color and not to show the least disposition to variation of type. They become, therefore, from their permanence, as positive indications of original diversity of race, as other criteria are allowed to be. But look at any of our domesticated animals, in which the color of the skin or its appendages is disposed to variation-the horse, for instance. We there see diversities much greater than those which are relied on as distinctive characters among moths and butterflies; but these differences are so far from being constant, that they spring up among individuals which are known to be descendants of the same parentage; they are, therefore, utterly valueless as evidences of breeds. In fact, any approach to permanence which they may possess, is entirely due to the agency of man in matching like with like; for all the races of wild horses with which we are acquainted, whether known to be descendants of domesticated ancestors or not, present one uniform brown hue. To which of these two cases then has that of the human races the most resemblance? Are there definite hues or markings, which are characteristic of all the individuals of particular races, and which are regularly transmitted from parent to offspring? Or do we find such a variation in this respect, among tribes or families known or presumed to have had a common parentage, as prevents any such line of demarcation from being drawn? To this question we shall endeavor, with Dr. Prichard's assistance, to give a satisfactory reply. The problem may be thus stated. Given, a fair and ruddy specimen of the so-called Caucasian race, a jet-black Negro, a swarthy Malay, an olive Mongolian, and a coppercolored American Indian; let it be determined-whether their hues are typical of their respective races; or whether such varieties of color may not be communicated to all, as to destroy the value of the distinctive character founded upon complexion. The nations, whose agreement in cranial conformation has caused them to be associ ated together under the general designation Caucasian, are very naturally arranged under two groups, differing from one another, but agreeing among themselves, in the fundamental peculiarities of their language. They are sometimes designated as the Semitic and Japetic nations; but Dr. Prichard much VOL. XVI. NO. I. 5 more appropriately, in our apprehension, terms them the Syro-Arabian and the IndoEuropean--names which at once indicate the nature of the subdivision. The former of these groups seems to have had its original seat in South-western Asia; but is now much more widely extended. For it seems to have diffused itself at a very remote period over Northern Africa, which has been again colonized from the parent stock at various subsequent times; and one of its offsets, the Jewish nation, has spread itself over a large portion of the habitable world. The Atlantic region of Northern Africa comprises the elevated country, mountainous in some parts, stretching from the Great Desert to the shores of the Mediterranean. Notwithstanding the subsequent admixture of foreign elements, the remains of the language of its earlier inhabitants are sufficiently distinct to have enabled Prof. Newman to class it among the primitive branches of the Syro-Arabian or Semitic group, coëval with the ancient Syrian, the Phoenician, &c. In this case, we can scarcely do otherwise than regard the people who speak dialects of this ancient Berber language-and who correspond in general bodily configuration, not only with each other, but with the other branches of the same stock-as forming part of the SyroArabian group. Now among the Kabyles of Algiers and Tunis, the Tuaryks of Sahara, the Shelahs or mountaineers of Southern Morocco, and other people of the same race, there are very considerable differences of complexion. In fact, there is perhaps no better example anywhere to be met with of the influence exercised by climate, and by tendency to spontaneous variation, in modifying the complexion. For the particulars to be inquired into in their case occur not only within a very limited range of country, but among races connected by the closest affinities of language, and who agree also in every other important physical character. Although the Kabyles in general have a swarthy hue and dark hair, the tribe of Mozabi is described by Mr. Hodgson as remarkably white; and the lofty table-land called Mount Aurasius is inhabited by a tribe so fair and ruddy, and with hair of so deep a yellow, that they have been supposed (though without any adequate foundation) to be a colony of Teutonic origin. On the other hand, some of the Tuaryk tribes bordering on the Great Desert, have a complexion as black as that of the darkest negro. Similar varieties of color obtain in other branches of the Syro-Arabian stock. All travellers who have visited the high lands of Arabia represent the inhabitants as having light complexions, their eyes being often blue and their hair red. The Arabs near Muscat are of a sickly yellow hue; those of the neighborhood of Mecca are of a yellowish brown; whilst those of the low countries bordering on the Nile are almost jet black. Mr. Buckingham noticed that the Arabs of the valley of the Jordan, a region of very constant and intense heat, had darker skins as well as flatter features and coarser hair, than he had seen elsewhere; and in the Hauran, a district beyond the Jordan, he met with a family who had Negro features, a deep black complexion, and crisped hair, of whose pure Arab descent he was nevertheless assured. It would be easy to multiply proofs to the same effect; but we shall satisfy ourselves with adverting to the case of the Jewish nation, which-though frequently appealed to by the advocates of the permanence of complexion and other physical characters-really tells the other way, when fully stated. This case is particularly satisfactory, on account of the evidence of general purity of descent through a long succession of generations, during which the scattered residence of the race has subjected its members to a great variety of external conditions. Now, although the descendants of Abraham are still generally recognizable by certain peculiarities of physiognomy, we find a great variety of complexion among them. In this country blue eyes and flaxen hair are not unfrequent; but a light brunette hue with black hair is most common. In Germany and Poland, the ordinary complexion is more florid, with blue eyes and red hair. On the other hand, the Jews of Portugal are very dark; while those who have been settled from very remote times in Cochin and the interior of Malabar, are so black as not to be distinguishable by their complexion from the native inhabitants. Thus it may be stated as a general proposition, that the complexion of the Jews tends to assimilate itself to that of any nation in which their residence has been sufficiently prolonged; while of this assimilation, the introduction of a small amount of extraneous blood does not by any means afford an adequate explanation. It is a curious circumstance that there is at Mattacheri, a town of Cochin, a particular colony of Jews which arrived at a comparatively late date in that country, and which are called Jerusalem or White Jews. That they have not yet been blackened by the tropical light and heat, shows that time is in this case a necessary condition. If we turn to the Indo-European branch of the Caucasian stock, we encounter a series of analogous phenomena. Passing from the mouth of the Ganges to the British Islands, not only does the same general type of cranial conformation everywhere re-appear; but a fundamental conformity in the languages of the various nations, as well as the concurrent testimony of their history and traditions, all indicate an early connection. Whatever may be thought of certain exceptional cases, no ethnologist of repute now disputes the eastern origin of the great body of the population of Europe. Here, then, we have a most striking example of variation of color among the descendants of one common stock; for the complexion of the Hindoo does not less differ from that of a Scandinavian, than does that of the Negro; indeed, there is every shade of gradation interposed between the fair hair and blue eyes of the inhabitant of Northern Europe, and the jet black of the dweller in the plains of India. Even if the common origin of the Hindoo and the Germanic and other European nations should be disputed, (which, however, cannot be attempted without overthrowing the whole fabric of modern philology,) it will be easy to show that similar variations are generated within much narrower limits. Thus among the Hindoo nation alone, we find the most marked diversities of complexion; some are as black as Negroes, some are of a copper color, others little darker than the inhabitants of Southern Europe, and others have actually fair complexions with blue eyes, and auburn or even red hair. These diversities appear to be connected with two sets of conditions, as their operating causes. The first place must de assigned to the marked differences of climate, which prevail betwixt the mountainous elevations of Kashmir or Kafiristan, and the low plains bordering the great rivers of India. But the distinction of castes is scarcely of secondary consequence; since it perpetuates the same modes of life in particular families from generation to generation, and also tends to render permanent any variety that may spontaneously spring up, and to restrain it within the limits of the caste in which it occurs. The high-caste people of the northern and more elevated parts of India are remarkable for the fairness of their complexions; while the Affghans, descended from the Median stock, and speaking a dialect derived from the an cient Zend, contain within their passes every | variety of complexion, from that of the dark Indian to that of the fair European. It is obvious, accordingly, that it is impossible to regard the hue of the skin as a sufficient test of the Caucasian race; since, whatever we may assume to be its typical complexion, that type is subject to every kind and degree of modification. The Arabs, the Berbers, the Jews, the Hindoos, the Affghans, and numerous other tribes that might be cited, exhibit many such modifications among themselves, not to mention those which distinguish them from each other; when the European nations are added to the list, the contrast becomes still more striking. Let us next examine the African nations. Here, it may perhaps be said, no such variety embarrasses us: blackness, with a reddish or yellowish tinge, being the universal hue of the Ethiopian race. Such an assertion, however, would only exhibit the very limited information of the rash ethnologist who should hazard it; for no fact is better established, than that of great diversity of complexion among the different inhabitants of this great continent. Some of the Kafir tribes, among which we frequently meet with high foreheads and prominent noses, have also light brown complexions and reddish hair; yet there is no ground whatever for attributing to them an origin distinct from that of the proper Negro races, with which they are connected in different degrees of affinity. There are tribes even upon the Gold and Slave coasts, considerably lighter than ordinary Negroes. The Hottentot has a large admixture of yellow in his complexion; whilst the Fúlahs of Central Africa are of a dark copper color. The widest departure from the ordinary Negro complexion is shown in the African nations who border on the Red Sea. Little was known of them prior to the French expedition into Egypt; much information, however, has been gained since, especially by M. d'Abbadie. They exhibit specialties on the one hand, which approximate closely to the Negro type; though in other respects, more particularly in the hue of their skin, the severance is complete::-so that they evidently constitute a series of links between the Negro and the ancient Egyptian race. This gradual transition has been attributed by writers who regard the ancient Egyptians as of Caucasian origin, to an intermixture of races from neighboring confines. But M. d'Abbadie, a most careful observer, expressly states that these intermediate tribes are certainly not Mulattoes, having none of the characters of mixed races. On the contrary, they are each of them distinguished by the characteristic physical features and peculiarities of language, which mark them out as races distinct from the Negroes on the one hand, and from the white races on the other; though they possess at the same time points of resemblance to both. Here, as elsewhere, the lightest complexions and a superior physical conformation characterize the inhabitants of the highlands; whilst the dwellers on the low plains beneath the same latitudes approach nearer to the true Negroes of their neighborhood, not merely in the blackness of their skin, but in the thickness of their lips, the flatness of their noses, and the crispness of their hair. We must not allow ourselves to be detained by the evidence collected by Dr. Prichard respecting the physical characters of the ancient Egyptians. The conclusion to which it conducts him is a conviction-that the ancient Egyptians were so closely allied to the Negro race, that the origin of both was probably the same. The complexion of the ancient Egyptians, as represented by their own artists, seems to have been of a red copper or light chocolate color, and to have resembled the present complexion of the reddest of the Fulah and Kafir tribes. Their peculiar physiognomy has been transmitted to us still better, perhaps, in their sculptures : where it is at once recognized as much more African than Arabian: the Negro features being only an exaggeration of it. We shall hereafter see that this conclusion is strengthened by philological considerations. Complexion, therefore, must be admitted. to be no such definite distinction as can sever the Negro races from other branches of the human family. Nor will the character of their hair be found more conclusive; though it has been asserted by some to be a more lasting, and therefore more trustworthy, criterion-so much so, that the African nations have been collectively termed "woolly-haired." Now, it is clearly proved by microscopic examination, that the hair of the Negro is not wool; and that its intimate structure differs from that of the fairer races, solely in the greater quantity of pigmentary matter contained in its interior-as is the case with jet-black hair in our own country. The crisp, twisted growth of Negro hair is the only sign by which it can be really separated from the straight and flowing hair of Europeans. But a little consideration will show the futility of attempting to separate races on distinctions, which do not exceed such variations as may be observed within the limits of any single race. For instance, among the African nations, some have a dark complexion, and are conformable in other respects to the Negro type, yet at the same time have long flowing hair. On the other hand, there are many Europeans, having no admixture of Negro blood, with hair so crisp and frizzled as almost to deserve the epithet of woolly. But supposing the difference to be as great and constant as is commonly represented, it would still be by no means sufficient to establish a diversity of origin. For the zoologist knows that he can place little reliance upon characters derived from the hairy covering, they are so peculiarly liable to variation under climatic influences. Thus the sheep of one of the valleys of the Andes, descended from those originally introduced by the Spaniards, bear wool in the first instance, and continue to do so if regularly shorn. If neglected, however, the wool forms a large tufted mass, which finally breaks off in shaggy portions; and beneath is found, not fresh wool, nor a naked and diseased skin, but a short fine hair, shining and smooth, like that of the goat in its best state: and this remains permanently, the wool never reappearing. and not particularly weak, her hair of the color that usually accompanies such eyes, and her complexion rather rosy. "It is easy to conceive," he adds, "that an accidental variety of this kind might propagate, and that the white race of mankind is sprung from such an accidental variety. The Indians are of this opinion; and there is a tradition or story among them in which this origin is assigned to us." This tendency towards a fair and even florid complexion, with light blue eyes and bushy hair, can be traced in several other nations of the same type, such as the Mantchoos in China, and also among the Chinese themselves. On the other hand, the hardy Samoiedes, Tungusians, and others living on the borders of the Icy Sea, have a dirty brown or swarthy complexion. A scantiness of hair, we may observe, is generally found in company with the Mongolian type; yet there are tribes having all the other characters conformable, and speaking languages obviously derived from the same stock, whose hair and beard are long and bushy. If we pass on to the Oceanic races, any attempt to employ the characters of the skin and hair as a means of distinguishing them from the other supposed primary stocks, must utterly fail, so great and so numerous On instituting a similar comparison be- are the diversities. Thus the Malays of the tween the complexions of the various eastern Archipelago, who resemble the branches and offsets of the Mongolian race, Chinese in features and general conformait will appear that, although an admixture tion, are of darker color; retaining, howof yellow is one of its most constant charac- ever, somewhat of a yellow tinge in their ters, yet this may co-exist with many other complexion. This comes out very strongly shades, and may even disappear altogether. in the natives of the Caroline Islands, whose Thus, in the remains of the aboriginal tribes aspect is decidedly Mongolian, and whose of India, still existing in the hilly regions of complexion is of a citron hue, although it the north, in the Deccan, and especially in becomes brown by exposure. The Tahitians Ceylon, all of which appear from the char- and Marquesans-especially in the families acters of their language, their peculiar cus- of their chiefs, which are secluded from the toms, and their traditions, to be descendants wind and sun-exhibit a clear olive or bruof the Northern Asiatic, rather than of the nette complexion, such as is common among Hindoo or Arian stock, we find a variety the nations of Central and Southern Europe; of shades of complexion; and this even and the hair, though generally black, is within the limits of the same nation. For sometimes brown, auburn, or even red or example, the Cinghalese are described by flaxen. The Hawaii or Sandwich Islanders Dr. Davy as varying in color from light are somewhat darker, and their hair is frebrown to black; the prevalent hue of their quently crisp and frizzled. The New Zeahair and eyes is black, but hazel eyes and landers and Ombai islanders present remarkbrown hair are not very uncommon; gray able varieties of complexion, as well as of eyes and red hair are occasionally seen, general conformation; some of them being though rarely; and sometimes the light-blue tall, well-formed, and comparatively fair, or red eye and light flaxen hair of the Albi- whilst others are dark or almost black, and Dr. Davy, in describing such a one, inferior in stature and figure. Yet there is remarks that her complexion would scarcely no sufficient reason for supposing in either of be considered peculiar in England, certainly these cases a mixed descent; or for surmisnot in Norway; for her eyes were light blue, ing that they have a different parentage from no. |