elements of his nature. It is, in short, just the the critical spirit of his country, it must, at the|Sin did not begin with Adam through an act of same time, we think, be granted that his dynami- his own free-will, but only occurred in him, as it cal view of inspiration has guided him to some does in others, through the necessary conflict of important and fruitful results. It has enabled the higher and lower, the spiritual and sensuous him to penetrate, more thoroughly and peculiarly, perhaps, than any before him, into the several individualities of the sacred writers. We know of none who had previously apprehended so fully or unfolded so finely the characteristic modes in which the four great representative apostles have exhibited the truth-the different aspects of it, which each has more specially set forth, and its as was to be expected, to a more fundamental and richness and depth, as revealed in this very variety thorough conception, in which sin is perceived to of its forms of conception and representation.* be something quite beyond and anterior to all such If even here we may be able to trace, at times, a actual experience of its operation—a mysterious too strongly expressed permanence of the supposed germ of evil, introduced once for all into humanhuman element, a too limited view of the respec-ity. But while so far more deeply apprehending tive peculiarities, (as, for example, in much that the truth, there are still many of this class of he says of St. James,) it must still be owned, we theologians* who cannot be said to acknowledge think, that Neander has, in this respect, opened clearly the full, positive conception of sin as not up a vein of Christian science of the deepest only evil but guilt—as not only alien to, but coninterest and importance. How early he had demned by, God. Neander has, we think, fully seized this idea of "unity in variety," which he seized this truly scriptural view of it. He distinctly has made, as it were, the basis of his exposition repels, indeed, all rationalizing as to its origin. of the apostolic doctrine, we have already seen in He holds that, from its very nature, as an act of his letters to Chemisso. It is one of the most the free-will, its origin must be logically incomprefavorite of all his ideas, and ever reäppears in the hensible. "It can only," he says, "be understood course of his writings. Both in reference to as a fact-a fact possible by virtue of the freedom Christian science and life, he believed it to be belonging to a created being-but not to be otherof the utmost importance to admit their free and wise deduced or explained. It lies in the idea ever-varying development from a common centre. of evil, that it is an utterly inexplicable thing; In the manifold all adapting forms in which they and who ever could explain it, nullifies the very thus express themselves, he recognized one of the idea of it. It is not the limits of our knowledge strongest proofs of the Divine power from which which make the origin of sin something thus inthey spring, so full and expansive in its native explicable to us; but it follows from the essential energy ever rising so copiously from its sacred nature of sin as an act of the free-will." Thus fount as to fill every manner of earthen vessel decisively ignoring all explanation of the mode of prepared for its reception. its origin, he yet strongly holds by the doctrine of original sin. The irreversible ground of this doctrine he considers to be the essential unity of the human race; according to which, sin, having once entered into the world, necessarily propagates itself with the growth of the race from its original point of commencement. Nor is it any mere process of subjective corruption, which, having once begun, is thus inevitably continued according to that law of human development without which, as he says, there could be no history. It is essentially something more, viz., a condition of objective guilt and condemnation. The necessary reäction of the holiness of God against sin, implying punishment as its desert, is fully admitted by him, though not perhaps with uniform clearness. "Without this idea of punishment," he significantly says, "the reality of evil and the dignity of rational creatures cannot be acknowledged. It belongs to the privilege of rational beings, created in the likeness of God, and dis We will now glance at Neander's more especial views of the two great doctrines of sin and redemption, to whose general exposition in the Augsburg Confession we have already seen that he adheres. These may be considered the experimenta crucies of any doctrinal system: and, in reference to both, we think, Neander will be found to have attained more purely scriptural notions than many of that scientific school of theologians with which he is yet generally to be classed. He had certainly in this respect advanced far beyond his great teacher. An essentially defective view of sin, as is known, lay at the root of Schleiermacher's theological system, and may be said to have given its whole complexion to it. In his idea sin is only the natural disorder of the human consciousness, the internal opposition between sense and spirit in man, through which, as a necessary transition-point in his development, he can alone be conducted to the freedom of a divine life in Christ. He did not recognize, properly speaking, any fall from a previous state of sinlessness. *This subject has since been expressly treated by Mr. Stanley, (the biographer of Dr. Arnold,) in his Sermons on the "Apostolic Age;" a book which, if not in all things a safe guide, is rich in spiritual wisdom, and marked by a fine and rare talent. * Of course, we only speak here, as throughout, generally, and taking Nitsch's " System of Christian Doctrine" to be, as it were, the text-book of this school in "Christian doctrine." Müller and Tholuck, (who, we suppose, must be also generally classed with this school,) and perhaps Twesten, have advanced as far as Neander the two former, in some points, clearly further. tinguishes them from other natural objects, that | istence wherein man becomes freed from the disthe idea of punishment "finds its application to cord of his previous life. But, while making them." thus prominent the work of Christ, on one sideBut while thus recognizing the important as- in its continually purifying relation to humanity, pects of guilt and punishment in the general idea Schleiermacher altogether overlooked its pecuof sin, Neander did not admit any formal imputa- liarly redeeming aspect as a sacrifice for sin, comtion of Adam's transgression. Such a view of pleted once for all in His death upon the Cross. the matter was, in fact, one quite foreign to his The element of reconciliation was, in short, wholly prevailing mode of apprehension, his mind ever wanting in his doctrine, and necessarily so―for rather repudiating than seeking the certainty of failing, as he did, to see the guilt and hatefulness definite abstract notions on subjects essentially so of sin in relation to a holy God, he could not recmysterious. A theory like that of the judicial ognize any necessity for an objective reconciliaimputation of the guilt of our first parents to their tion between the sinner and God. In this, as in posterity could bring no light to his mind. It the previous case, Schleiermacher's followers have was enough for him that he perceived in the true generally advanced beyond him; but with most of unity of the race, proceeding from Adam, the prac-them the peculiar doctrine of redemption, as is so tical ground of the transmission of sin to his race. obviously true of Schleiermacher's view, merges In Adam lay the germ of all humanity. And too much into the dependent doctrine of regenerathus, in Adam all fell. And from the essential nature of the connexion thus subsisting between Adam and his posterity, and not in virtue of any supposed formal compact, by which he became the federal as well as natural representative of the human family, did Neander regard mankind as lying in sin and condemnation. tion. The work of Christ is too much viewed by them as merely the operation of his sanctifying grace in the heart-the impartation of that divine life, which, beginning with him, continues to flow from him to the human race, transfiguring and glorifying it forever. They speak, indeed, of recThe historico- onciliation, in contrast to Schleiermacher, but it practical ground was here, as generally, the favor- is rather only as a subjective process through ite point from which he preferred contemplating which man is brought into new relations of dispoChristianity in all its relations. His mind natur-sition to God, than as an objective work of atoneally rested satisfied on this ground, and found no further satisfaction, but rather only perplexity, in the more precise logical explanations of more elaborated systems of theology. It was also a most important point in Neander's doctrine of sin, which we could not well pass by, so careful and decided is his expression of it, whenever he speaks of human corruption-viz., that corrupt as man is, there is still latent in him the divine image in which he was created. This image is indeed obscured, but by no means destroyed. There is in man still, under all his degradation, a divine consciousness, an element of affinity with God, and needing only the quickening energy of the divine Spirit to draw it forth and give it victory over his evil propensities. And in this fact of a divine principle rooted in man, Neander recognized the appropriate and indispensable point of contact between human nature and Christianity, whereby the latter, apprehending it, is alone enabled to educate and elevate it to a higher excellence even than that from which it has fallen. ment by which Christ hath, once and forever, expiated the offence of sin, and so reunited the sinner and God. They consequently reject altogether the idea of vicarious satisfaction. There is, in fact, no proper basis for this idea in their system, which places the general attribute of divine justice quite behind that of love, and regards it as properly only an effect of the latter; thus completely expunging the notion of any justitia retributiva in the Divine nature. Nitsch, indeed, does not hesitate to say that "if justice and law cannot thus be viewed as the effect of love, then assuredly must they be considered as æonic and demiurgiu, and inadequate to represent what is truly divine." We do not mean to say that in contrast to such views as these, Neander is to be regarded as having entertained what are commonly considered orthodox views on the great doctrine of the atonement. On the contrary, he identifies himself, in some respects very closely, with the prevailing mode of representation employed by this school in speaking of the work of Christ. No idea is more favorite with him than that of the new creation of If we now pass to Neander's view of the doc- human nature, ever more proceeding from the Godtrine of redemption, we shall find a similar ad- man; and his language is often such, that it vance to that which we have noted in his view of might be supposed this was all that he included the doctrine of sin. With Schleiermacher, re- in the idea of the Christian redemption. But it is demption was, of course, made to correspond with impossible to weigh impartially together his statehis very limited notion of the correlative truth: ments in his exposition of the apostolic doctrine, and was accordingly conceived by him as rather without seeing that he recognized something more only the communication of a new divine life to objective and definite in the work of Christ than humanity, than a deliverance from sin and its this. If he did not give to the death of the Cross penalty, once for all accomplished in man's behalf. all its peculiar prominence-if he did not appreChrist is, indeed, all in all in his system. Only hend, with orthodox clearness, its special redempthrough the fellowship of a living faith in him, is tive efficacy, he yet fully perceived that there was there any entrance into that higher spiritual ex-| something real and valid in the conception of a reconciling sacrifice for sin. He distinctly rejects the "views, in conformity to which, the life and sufferings of Christ are considered merely as a manifestation of God's love, and the reconciliation effected by Him as the subjective influence of this manifestation on the human heart, as by no means adequate to the import of the peculiar declarations respecting the work of Christ." On the contrary, he holds, that under the "wrath of God," though in an anthropopathical form, something objective and actual is signified, "something," he says, not fully expressed by the idea of punishment, but inclusive of what is the ground of all punishment the absolute contrariety existing between God as the Holy One and sin," and no less, that through the offering up of Christ's life for man, the barrier thus placed between the sinner and the Holy One is removed. "God has thus Himself removed that which separated between Him and man." There are other points on which we could have wished to present the doctrinal views of Neander, but we have already more than exhausted our space on this part of our subject. It is the less necessary, however, as, in fact, Neander everywhere expresses his conviction that the essence of Christianity consists in the central truth of redemption on the one hand, and, on the other, in the pre-supposition of its need upon which it is founded—or the correlative truth of human corruption. Beyond these fundamental facts of the Gospel, and in regard to some of its more recondite mysteries, there may have been much that was wavering in his theology. He himself, as we have just seen, acknowledged this. With that noble and frank simplicity so characteristic of him, he confesses that his religious life had been all along too much affected by the culture of his age, to allow him to compare himself for a moment with those men of child-like simplicity-those heroes whose divine confidence is exalted above all doubt." Most deeply did he himself feel that his doctrinal views bore the impress of his country's intellectual strifes, that their dint and scar, so to speak, were visible everywhere in his writings. Thus, he 66 In such clearer and fuller tones does Neander speak of the doctrine of redemption; and if there be here, as elsewhere desiderated by some, a more definite completeness in his views, more of that straight logical decision so characteristic of our home theology, we must remember (not to speak | says, very touchingly in reference to his "Life of of that predominating habit of mind to which we have already referred, which rather repelled than cherished the repose of strict logical proposition) the very different atmosphere which Neander breathed; the struggling period of his country's theology through which he lived, and silently nurtured his own convictions. Jesus," that he was conscious it bore the marks of its production in an age of crises, of isolation, of fear, and of throes; but, truth before all things he could not seem to be what he was not, and the work must therefore just remain what it was, "the mirror of the progress of his mind in an age of conflict." When he could not attain decision, At the same time, we would not conceal, (for, therefore, he was content to say "perhaps," nor above everything, we would not be guilty of was he ashamed to do so, as he remarks, "unstraining the views of our author, so as to make fashionable as that term has now-a-days become in them fit to any standard of orthodoxy, knowing matters of science." This willing hesitancy, or well with what emphasis he would himself, in the contented suspension of opinion, on much that lies pure, sensitive truthfulness of his nature, have beyond the sphere of what he termed the immediate repudiated such an endeavor,) we would not, Christian consciousness, was, in truth, as we have therefore, conceal our opinion that there are already more than once implied, one of the strongest elements in our current atonement-theology, or at characteristics of Neander's religious tendency, as least modes of presenting these elements, which it is of the whole scientific school of German thecould never have found sympathy with Neander. ology. Logical dogmatism, of every kind, is its The strongly expressed prominence which some abhorrence; and there can be no doubt that Neanare in the habit of giving to the anthropopathical | der owned too much what we must consider to be aspect of the divine nature, here brought so con- its somewhat one-sided influence in this respect. spicuously into view, could never have commended With him, however, this voluntary ignorance on itself to him. In such modes of representation, some points was evidently a cherished peculiarity; on the contrary, he only saw the characteristic and, according to his latest convictions, a feature exaggerations of an excessive "Blutt-theologie," in his theology which, upon the whole, he thought such as Nitsch speaks of. In this very fact, highly worthy of being prized. For he has emhowever, there are many who will recognize his phatically said, in the preface to the third edition peculiar strength and excellence as a theologian of his "Leben Jesu,” “ my dogmatic system may, viz., that while apprehending so deeply the esscn- and indeed must, appear hesitating and unsatisfactial ideas involved in the doctrine of Christian tory" to those who have learned to count the Socratic redemption, he should, at the same time, have ignorance for folly, and who have settled beforehand ever so aimed to preserve these ideas free from all the highest questions; "questions," he adds, "for gross, merely human, admixture. Many will here whose sure and clear solution, the great Melancacknowledge a signal service done to the truth-thon, as he expressed shortly before his death, was a truly purifying process, which, in conformity content to wait to the intuition of a higher life, with the higher views of an advanced science, among whose beatitudes he reckoned such satisfymust yet overtake much of our mere popular ing knowledge." theology. We must now turn to a brief review of Nean - der's labors in that department of theological | the time of Neander, and to his fresh, original science in which he was above all distinguished, view of Christian history there must have appeared and in which, above all, his name is destined to be many imperfections in such a work as Mosheim's. perpetuated. We have seen how early, and with He could not fail, indeed, to do justice to its charwhat a peculiar freshness and zeal, he gave him-acteristic excellences in that fine spirit of appreself to researches into the history of the church. ciation which ever marked his review of the theoAs, still earlier, his days and nights had been logical products of a past age; but no less could given to Plato, so in the yet spring energy of his he fail, as none can, who have attained a right and powerful faculties, his days and nights were given adequate conception of church history, to find it in to the great fathers of the church, St. Clement, important respects quite deficient. If its arrangeSt. Origen, St. Chrysostom, and St. Bernard. ment be clear and readily intelligible, presenting And there can be no doubt, that as he felt a numerous marked points for facile reference-the special call to this peculiar department of study, advantage, we believe, above all, which has so so he saw that in it there was special need for long given it, and still to some extent enables it reviving and healthful labor. Many laborers in to maintain, its preeminent position as a text-book his own country had indeed preceded him in this if its impartiality be upon the whole conspicuous field; for Germany has, above all, been the land and its learning be truly original and extensive, of ecclesiastical historiography, dating from the and, at the same time, thoroughly under mastery, Magdeburg Centuriators downwards. The gen- and subordinated to the fitting purpose of elucieral revival of theology at the Reformation neces- dating the narration, instead of merely cumbering sarily called forth researches into the early Chris-it with ponderous citations, still it cannot be tian history, in order that the resuscitated truth denied that it is almost wholly wanting in other preached by Luther might be identified with the qualities no less essential. If so precise and truth taught by the early fathers; and Flacius definite in its proportions, so direct in outline, so and his friends, in their immensely laborious and clear and accessible in its materials, it yet to a voluminous undertaking, earned well of the Prot- great extent only possesses these advantages beestant church in this direction; and, deficient as cause its general structure is so artificial and selftheir work inevitably was in scientific arrangement disposed. The field of church history is distinctly and digested narrative, it must ever remain a enough marked out by Mosheim, but his lines are noble monument of painstaking zeal, and a valu- often quite arbitrary, separating points which able repository for future historians. Mosheim, should have been together, and confounding others after an interval of nearly two centuries, may be which ought to have been more definitely indisaid to have originated church history as a distinct cated, especially the former-as, for example, in and genuine part of theological science in modern his treatment under different chapters of the prostimes; and, immediately following him, the ex-perous and adverse circumstances of the church, and tended labors of Shröekh, and Walch, and Planck, again of its doctrines and heresies; thus, it may connect his period with that of Neander. Of the be, giving prominency to details, but at the same works of the two former of these, who, especially time destroying all true historic connexion and esthe first, were direct disciples of Mosheim, we sential union. His work has, in fact, altogether too know almost nothing. Valuable, we understand, much of the character of those of the mere annalists from the copious store of information which they who preceded him-forming rather only an aggrecontain, and manifesting in many respects a most gate of materials, though consistently laid together, laudable industry of research, we have yet the than a unique and harmonious composition fused best proof of their deficiency in other important by a living spirit and speaking a living lesson. qualities, in the fact of Mosheim's work having In this latter respect-in the marked want of a ever maintained its preeminence over them. As pervading Christian interest-the history of Moto the more recent labors of Planck, which, as we sheim, if far more perfect in other respects, must have seen, were not without a stimulating influ- still ever be found essentially imperfect. The ence on Neander, they relate chiefly to separate true character of the church as a living witness to periods and distinct sections of church history-as, the divine power of Christianity, even in the for example, his most important work on the darkest phase of its career, is by no means to be "Origin, Changes and Formation of our Protestant traced in it. The path of divine light, which was Theology from the Commencement of the Refor-never entirely obscured, but may still be seen gleammation to the Introduction of the Formula of Concord," with its continuation to the middle of the eighteenth century; and marked, as these and all Planck's works are, by a truly scientific spirit and noble tolerance, yet they cannot be reckoned-in limited as they thus are-to have constituted any marked advance in this branch of theological study. ing, though in faint and blurred reflection, along the whole course even of the dark ages, ever and anon disappears in total darkness in his pages. It was the very strong sense of this deficiency the work of Mosheim which led, as we know, *We have omitted mention of the labors of Henke and Spittler on the anti-Christian or ultra-rationalizing side, and Count Stolberg on the catholic side, in the field of church history, not merely because we only know of the Mosheim's work, therefore, may be truly said fact of their labors, and of the very different spirit anito have formed the highest point to which Chris-mating them, but chiefly because we believe that the highest opinion which may be formed of them will not tian science had attained in this direction before affect the statement in the text. the elder Milner to engage in his history. If responding with the magnitude of the undertaking Mosheim, however, be so deficient in a pervading are the combination of qualities which it presents, Christian interest, Milner may be said to have and the various lights in which it might be exsacrificed every other quality, and even often the hibited. How far he has advanced beyond the cause of truth itself, to an exaggerated estimate labors of his predecessors, will be at once felt by of this interest. With every admiration, there- those who have given his history their thoughtful fore, of the pious industry and zeal of this writer perusal for such a perusal alone will it repay. and his brother, and fully appreciating the lively How different a picture the church presents in his and attractive manner in which they have pre-pages to those of Mosheim; how animate and sented some points of the Christian history, and shaping a creation it appears in humanity—graduthe glowing and animating portraits even they have sometimes drawn of its illustrious heroes, we cannot admit their work to be, in any adequate sense, a History of the Church," based, as it is in fact confessedly, on a principle which excludes such a supposition, and deficient as it is generally in all scientific spirit, and especially, as we must hold, in that impartiality of sentiment and liberal comprehensiveness of view, without which, even with the most sincere intentions, historical representation becomes falsified and distorted. ally transforming it with a new sanctifying energy; refining only into a higher beauty and strength under the raging fires of persecution; then gradually obscuring, and losing its divine comeliness in the days of worldly prosperity and exaltation; again reäppearing, although in a much corrupted form, as an element of life and peaceful power amid the darkening ferment and savage discords which ushered in a new European world-how, through all its sharpest oppositions, and even very corruptions, which present in Mosheim only so miserably saddening an aspect, some shade of the truth is still seen elicited, or some side of good still found-these are the most obvious points of advantage which must strike at first every student, and make him feel what a different historical intuition and nobler talent has been employed in the work of Neander. And if thus superior to all previous church histories, it is, though perhaps surpassed by them in some special qualities, no less eminently apart from all contemporary efforts in his own country or in our own. If Gieseler manifest equal learning, and, as some think, a more clear and comprehensive classification of facts; if Hase, amid all his enigmatical brevity, displays sometimes more force and originality of conception and greater liveliness of narrative, the fact that the works of these authors are still at the best only compendiums of the history of the church--handbooks for the use of the student, rather than histories in the right sense of the term-leaves no proper point of comparison between them and the work of Neander. And as for the popular work of Guerike—if animated by a truly religious spirit, and breathing a lively interest in the fortunes of the church, which it exhibits in a rapidly distinct and impressive manner, it is yet disfigured by the most marked partialities and old Lutheran prejudices, and in these respects, therefore, as well as in mere compass and general scientific pretensions, can lay no claim to be ranked by the side of that of Neander. And if we look homewards, we have, indeed, the able and judicious summary of Waddington among the volumes of the " Library of Useful Knowledge;" the history of the first three centuries by Milman, in some respects a truly splendid production, exhibiting still more, perhaps, than even his History of the Jews, the stores of a rich and varied culture, a copious felicity of diction, and a most benign and widely-embracing tolerHow worthily Neander has fulfilled, so far, in ance; but, alas, signally deficient in other indishis "General Church History," the great task pensable qualities, and at best only a commencewhich he thus set before himself, it is by no means ment; and we have, lastly, the mere fragment of easy, in so many words, to tell the reader. Cor- a commencement by Welch, which is not, in our The field of church history, therefore, as it had been hitherto only cultivated, must have appeared to Neander to be peculiarly open to improving and fruitful application. And here, in the general spirit of his theological tendency, the union of science with piety suggested itself to him as the great task to be accomplished, as in other departments of theology. Most heartily he felt, as the good Milner had done, though with a very different grasp of comprehension, that there could be no such thing truly as church history apart from a leading reference to the spirit and kingdom of God, of which the church was in all its relations but the earthly symbol and representative. Otherwise its history he perceived, with Herder, could be nothing more than the "huge body of Polyphemus from which the eye is thrust out." It was the fundamental conception, therefore, of his great work, that the church, through all its career, is to be viewed as the living embodiment of the divinity of the Gospel. To exhibit it as such—in his own words, "as a living witness of the divine power of Christianity; as a school of Christian experience; a voice sounding through the ages, of instruction, of doctrine, and of reproof for all who are disposed to listen"-this he confessed to have been from the earliest period the great aim of his life and studies. But while thus clearly apprehending the essential nature of his task on this side, he no less fully felt its claims on the other— in relation to science; and its peculiar difficulty he saw just to consist in the combination of the two -in the execution of it so as to answer at once "the demands of science and the great practical want" indicated above. "For both of them," he said, " are in the present case closely connected;" adding immediately the emphatic declaration in behalf of a genuine science which we have already quoted. |