rather more than 36 ounces of water, which corresponds to a capacity of 1033.24 cubic centimetres. Huschke estimates the cranial contents of a Negress at 1127 cubic centimetres; of an old Negro at 1146 cubic centiwetres. The capacity of the Malay skulls, estimated by water, equalled 36, 33 ounces, while in the diminutive Hindoos it falls to as little as 27 ounces. After comparing the Neanderthal cranium with many others, ancient and modern, Professor Schaaffhausen concludes thus : But the man bones and cranium from the Neanderthal exceed all the rest in those peculiarities of conformation which lead to the conclusion of their belonging to a barba rous and savage race. Whether the cavern in which they were found, unaccompanied with any trace of human art, were the place of their interment, or whether, like the bones of extinct animals elsewhere, they had been washed into it, they may still be regarded as the most ancient memorial of the early inhabitants of Europe.' Mr. Busk, the translator of Dr. Schaaffhausen's paper, has enabled us to form a very vivid conception of the degraded char. acter of the Neanderthal skull, by placing side by side with its outline that of the skull of a Chimpanzee, drawn to the same absolute size. Some time after the publication of the translation of Professor Schaaffhausen's "Memoir," I was led to study the cast of the Neanderthal cranium with more attention than I had previously bestowed upon it, in consequence of wishing to supply Sir Charles Lyell with a diagram, exhibiting the special peculiarities of this skull, as compared with other human skulls In order to do this it was necessary to identify, with precision, those points in the skulls compared which corresponded anatomically. Of these points, the glabella was obvious enough; but when I had distinguished another, defined by the occipital protuberance and superior semicircular line, and had placed the outline of the Neanderthal skull against that of the Engis skull in such a position that the glabella and occipital protuberance of both were intersected by the same straight line, the difference was so vast and the flattening of the Neanderthal skull so prodigious (compare Figs. 22 and 24 A), that I at first imagined I must have fallen into some error. And I was the more inclined to suspect this, as, in ordinary human skulls, the occipital protuberance and superior semicircular curved line on the exterior of the occiput correspond pretty closely with the "lateral sinuses" and the line of attachment of the tentorium internally. But on the tentorium rests, as I have said in the preceding essay, the poste rior lobe of the brain; and hence the occipital protuberance and the curved line in question indicate, approximately, the lower im:ts of that lobe. Was it possible for a human being to have the brain thus flattened and depressed; or, on the other hand, had the muscular ridges shifted their posi tion? In order to solve these doubts, and to decide the question whether the great supraciliary projections did, or did not, arise from the development of the frontal sinuses. I requested Sir Charles Lyell to be so good as to obtain for me from Dr. Fuhlrott, the possessor of the skull, answers to certain queries, and if possible a cast, or at any rate drawings, or photographs, of the interior of the skull. Dr. Fuhlrott replied, with a courtesy and readiness for which I am infinitely indebted to him, to my inquiries, and furthermore sent three excellent photographs. One of these gives a side view of the skull, and from it Fig. 24 A has been shaded. The second (Fig. 25 A) exhibits the wide openings of the frontal sinuses upon the inferior surface of the frontal part of the skull, into which, Dr. Fullrott writes, a probe may be introduced to the depth of an inch," and demonstrates the great extension of the thickened supraciliary ridges beyond the cerebral cavity. The third, lastly (Fig. 25 B), exhibits the edge and the interior of the posterior, or occipital, part of the skull, and shows very clearly the two depressions for the lateral sinuses, sweeping inward toward the middle line of the roof of the skull, to form the longitudinal sinus. It was clear, therefore, that I had not erred in my interpretation, and that the posterior lobe of the brain of the Neanderthal man must have been as much flattened as I suspected it to be. In truth, the Neanderthal cranium has most extraordinary characters. It has an extreme length of 8 inches, while its breadth is only 5.75 inches, or, in other words, its length is to its breadth as 100 72. It is exceedingly depressed, measuring only about 3.4 inches from the glabello-occipital line to the vertex. The longitudinal arc, measured In the same way as in the Engis skull, is 12 inches; the transverse are cannot be exactly ascertained in consequence of the absence of the temporal bones, but was probably about the samo, and certainly exceeded 10 inches. The horizontal circumference is 23 inches But this great circumference arises largely from the vast development of the supracili. ary ridges, though the perimeter of the brain case itself is not small. The large supraciliary ridges give the forehead a far more retreating appearance than its internal contour would bear out. To an anatomical eye the posterior part of the skull is even more striking than the ante The occipital protuberance occupies the extreme posterior end of the skull, when rior. the glabello-occipital line is made horizontal, and so far from any part of the occipital region extending beyond it, this region of the skull slopes obliquely upward and forward, So that the lambdoidal suture is situated well upon the upper surface of the cranium. At the same time, notwithstanding the great length of the skull, the sagittal suture is remarkably short (4 inches), and the squamosal suture is very straight. In reply to my questions, Dr. Fuhlrott writes that the occipital bone" is in a state of perfect preservation as far as the upper semicircular line, which is a very strong 1idge, linear at its extremities, but enlarging toward the middle, where it forms two ridges (bourrelets), united by a linear continuation, G. 26.-Side and front views of the round and orthognathous skull of a Calmuck, after Von Baer, One third the natural size. which is slightly depressed in the middle. Below the left ridge the bone exhibits an obliquely inclined surface, six lines (French) long, and twelve lines wide This last must be the surface, the contour of which is shown in Fig 24 A, below b. It is particularly interesting, as it suggests that, notwithstanding the flattened condition of the occiput, the posterior cerebral lobes must have projected considerably beyond the cerebellum, and as it constitutes one among sevcral points of similarity between the Neanderthal cranium and certain Australian skulls. Such are the two best known forms of human cranium, which have been found in what may be fairly termed a fossil state. Can either be shown to fill up or diminish, to any appreciable extent, the structural interval which exists between man and the man-like apes? Or, on the other hand, does neither depart more widely from the average structure of the human cranium, than normally formed skulls of men are known to do at the present day? It is impossible to form any opinion on these questions, without some preliminary acquaintance with the range of variation ex. hibited by human structure in general-a subject which has been but imperfectly stude. while even of what is known my limits will necessarily allow me to give only a very imperfect sketch. be, so far, more ape-like than that of ordinary Europeans, are we justified in concluding a like condition of the brain to prevail universally among the lower races of mankind, however probable that conclusion may be. We are, in fact, sadly wanting in information respecting the disposition of the soft and destructible organs of every race of mankind but our own; and even of the skeleton, our museums are lamentably deficient in every part but the cranium. Skulls enough there are, and since the time when Blumenbach and Camper first called attention to the marked and singular differences which they exhibit, skuil-collecting and skull-measuring has been a zealously pursued branch of natural history, and the results obtained have been arranged and classified by various writers, among whom the late active and able Retzius must always be the first named. Human skulls have been found to differ from one another, not merely in their absolute size and in the absolute capacity of the brain-case, but in the proportions which the diameters of the latter bear to one another; in the relative size of the bones of the face (and more particularly of the jaws and teeth) as compared with those of the skull; in the degree to which the upper jaw (which is of course followed by the lower) is thrown backward and downward under the forepart of the brain-case, or forward and upward in front of and beyond it. They differ further The student of anatomy is perfectly well in the relations of the transverse diameter aware that there is not a single organ of the the face, taken through the check bones, to human body the structure of which does not the transverse diameter of the skull; in the vary, to a greater or less extent, in different more rounded or more gable-like form of the individuals. The skeleton varies in the pro- roof of the skull, and in the degree to which portions, and even to a certain extent in the the hinder part of the skull is flattened or connections, of its constituent bones. The projects beyond the ridge, into and below muscles which move the bones vary largely which the muscles of the neck are inserted. in their attachments. The varieties in the In some skulls the brain-case may be said mode of distribution of the arteries are care to be round," the extreme length not exfully classified, on account of the practical ceeding the extreme breadth by a greater importance of a knowledge of their shiftings proportion than 100 to 80, while the differto the surgeon. The characters of the brain ence may be much less. Men possessing vary immensely, nothing being less constant such skulls were termed by Retzius" brachythan the form and size of the cerebral hemi- cephalic," and the skul! of a Calmuck, of spheres, and the richness of the convolutions which a front and side view (reduced outline upon their surface, while the most change- copies of which are given in Fig. 26) are able structures of all in the human brain are depicted by Von Baer in his excellent "Craexactly those on which the unwise attempt nia selecta," affords a very admirable examhas been made to base the distinctive charac- ple of that kind of skull. Other skulls, such ters of humanity, viz., the posterior cornu of as that of a Negro copied in Fig. 27 from Mr. the lateral ventricle, the hippocampus minor, Busk's "Crania typica," have a very differ and the degree of projection of the posterio ent, greatly elongated form, and may be lobe beyond the cerebellum. Finally, as all termed oblong.' In this skull the extreme the world knows, the hair and skin of human length is to the extreme breadth as 100 to not beings may present the most extraordinary more than 67, and the transverse diameter of diversities in color and in texture. the human skull may fall below even this proportion. People having such skulls were called by Retzius" dolichocephalic." So far as our present knowledge goes, the Lajority of the structural varieties to which allusion is here made are individual. The ape-like arrangement of certain muscles which is occasionally met with in the white races of mankind, is not known to be more common among Negroes or Australians; nor because the brain of the Hottentot Venus was found to be smoother, to have its convolutions more symmetrically disposed, and to 66 The most cursory glance at the side views of these two skuil will suffice to prove that they differ, in another respect, to a very striking extent. The profile of the face of the Calmuck is almost vertical, the facial bones being thrown downward and under the forepart of the skull. The profile of the face of a Negro, on the other hand, is singulariy Inclined, the front part of the jaws project which forms the facial angle, are drawn ing far forward beyond the level of the fore- through points of the skull, the position of part of the skull. In the former case the each of which is modified by a number of skull is said to be" orthognathous" or straight- circumstances, so that the angle obtained is jawed; in the latter it is called " progna- a complex resultant of all these circumthous," a term which has been rendered, with tances, and is not the expression of any one nore force than elegance, by the Saxon equiv. definite organic relation of the parts of the alent-snouty. skull. Various methods have been devised in order to express with some accuracy the degree of prognathism or orthognathism of any given skull; most of these methods being essentially modifications of that devised by Peter Camper, in order to attain what he called the facial angle." But a little consideration will show that any facial angle" that has been devised can be competent to express the structural modifications involved in prognathism and orthognathism, only in a rough and general sort of way. For the lines, the intersection of I have arrived at the conviction that no comparison of crania is worth very much that is not founded upon the establishment of a relatively fixed base line, to which the measurements, in all cases, must be referred. Nor do I think it is a very difficult matter to decide what that base line should be. The parts of the skull, like those of the rest of the animal framework, are developed in succession: the base of the skull is formed before its sides and roof; it is converted into cartilage earlier and more completely than the sides and roof; and the cartilaginous FIG. 27.-Oblong and prognathous skull of & Negro; side and front views one third of the natural size. base ossifies, and becomes soldered into one piece long before the roof. I conceive then that the base of the skull may be demonstrated developmentally to be its relatively fixed part, the roof and sides being rel. atively movable. The same truth is exemplified by the study of the modifications which the skull undergoes in ascending from the lower animals up to man. In such a mammal as a beaver (Fig. 28), a line (a. b.) drawn through the bones termed basioccipital, basisphenoid, and presphenoid, is very long in proportion to the extreme length of the cavity which contains the cerebral hemispheres (g. h.) The plane of the occipital foramen (b. c.) forms a slightly acute angle with this "basicranial axis, while the plane of the tentorium (¿. T.) is inclined at rather more than 90° to the "basicranial axis ;" and so is the plane of the perforated plate (a. d.) by which the filaments of the olfactory nerve leave the skull. Again, a line drawn through the axis of the face, between the bones called ethmoid and vomer, the basifacial axis" (f. e.), forms an exceedingly obtuse angle, where, when produced, it cuts the "basicranial axis." 66 66 If the angle made by the line b. c. with a. b., be called the occipital angle," and the angle made by the line a. d. with a. b. be termed the olfactory angle," and that made Beaver 66 by i. T. with a. b. the " tentorial angle," then all these, in the mammal in question, are nearly right angles, varying between 80° and 110'. The angle e. f. b., or that made by the cranial with the facial axis, and which may be termed the "cranio-facial angle," is extremely obtuse, amounting, in the case of the beaver, to at least 150°. But if a series of sections of mammalian skulls, intermediate between a Rodent and a Man (Fig. 28), be examined, it will be found that in the higher crania the basi-cranial axis becomes shorter relatively to the cerebral length; that the olfactory angle" and occipital angle" become more obtuse, and that the cranio facial angle," becomes more acute by the bending down, as it were, of the facial axis upon the cranial axis. At the same time the roof of the cranium becomes more and more arched, to allow of the increasing height of the cerebral hemispheres, which is eminently characteristic of man, as well as of that backward extension, beyond the cerebellum, which reaches it maximum in the South American monkeys. So that, at last, in the human skull (Fig. 29), the cerebral length is between twice and thrice as great as the length of the basicranial axis : the olfactory plane is 20° or 30° on the under side of that axis; the occipital angle, instead of being less than 90°, is as much as 150° or 160°; the cranio-facial angle may be 90° or FIG. 2.-Longitudinal and vertical sections of the skulis of a Beaver (Castor Canadensis), E Lemur (L. Catta) and a Baboon (Cynocephalus Pupio). a b, the basicranial axis; bc, the occipital p.ane; i T, the tentorial plane; a d, the olfactory plane; fe, the basifacial axis; cba, occipital angle Tia, tentorial angle; da b, olfactory angle; ef b, cranio-facial angle; gh, extreme length length, or, in other words, the proportional length of the line gh to that of a b taken as 100, in the three skulls. is as follows: Beaver, 70 to 100: Lemur, 119 to 100; Baboon, 114 to 100. In an adult male Gorilla the cerebral length is as 170 to the basicranial axis taken as 100; in the Negro (Fig. 29) as 236 to 100; in the Constantinople skull (Fig. 29) as 266 to 100. The crarial difference between the highest Ape's skull and the lowest Man's is therefore very strikingly In the diagram of the Baboon's skull the dotted lines d1 d2, etc., give the angles of the Lemur's and Beaver's skull, as laid down upon the basicranial axis of the Baboon. The line & has the O the cavity which I brought out by these measurements. same length in each diagram. basicranial axis as to theges the cerebral hemispheres or "cerebral length." The length of the |