it is added. Thus Piu allegro, a little quicker. Piu piano, a little softer, &c. Plagal melodies are such as have their principal notes contained between the fifth of the key and its octave or twelfth. Plaint chant. Used in ancient Ecclesiastical Music to signify the chief melody which was confined to the natural sounds of the scale. Poco. A little less, has just the contrary effect of Piu, and therefore diminishes the strength of the signification of the word to which it is annexed. Thus Poco presto means not quite so quick as presto requires. Poco piu allegro, a little more lively and brisk than allegro alone requires. Point. A mark used by many authors instead of the dash; but its principal use is to distinguish those notes from which an intermediate effect is required, different from the dash. Post-positions are singular suspensions of the harmony, being the reverse of anticipations; they are, in fact, the retardations of harmony, by putting a discord upon the accented part of the bar, but not prepared and resolved according to the rules for discords.

Preparation of a discord. Taking care that the note which is the discord is heard in the preceding harmony.

Presto to a movement denotes that it is to be performed fast or quick, yet not with rapidity. The superlative Prestissimo is very quick. Non troppo presto, less quick, not too quick.

Quadrum. The same as Natural, which see. Quaver. A measure of time equal to half the crotchet, or an eighth of the semibreve.

Quintuple. A species of time which contains five crotchets in a bar: but seldom used.

Radical bass. The same as the Fundamental bass, which see. Repeat. A character to denote that what was last played or sung must be repeated or performed again: this is otherwise marked by dots against a bar, or by the words Da capo or Bis.

Resolution is the deciphering a canon, or perpetual fugue from a single line or staff, or in one part, in which all the voices that are to follow the guide or first voice are written separately, either in score, that is in separate lines, or in separate parts, with the pauses each is to keep, and in the proper tone for each.

Resolution of a discord. The descent of a discord after it has been struck either a tone or a semitone according to the mode. Rest. A pause or interval of time, during which there is an intermission of the voice or sound. Rests are of various lengths, and accordingly expressed by certain characters according to the quantity of certain notes.

Rhythm. The disposition or arrangement of melody or harmony in respect of time or measure.

Rinforzando. Denoted thus, to signify that the sound is to be diminished and increased.

Ripieno signifies full, and distinguishes those parts that play now and then to fill up the Music from those that play throughout the piece.

Root. The prime or lowest note of the Harmonic triad, which see. Scale. A series of sounds rising or falling towards acuteness or gravity from any given pitch of tune to the greatest practicable distance, through such intermediate degrees as make the succession most agreeable and perfect, and in which all the harmonic intervals are conveniently divided. This scale is denominated a universal system.

Schisma. An interval equal to about half a comma. Score, or Partition. The Music of a piece written for all the several parts in their places under each other, and the bars scored or drawn in their proper places through the whole from top to bottom.

Second. An interval consisting of two degrees distant from each other one tone or one semitone; consequently there are two kinds of seconds, the major second, or tone, and the minor second, or semitone.

Segno. See Al segno.

Segue. It follows. A word often written before a part, which without stopping is immediately to follow the last note of the preceding movement. It is also used where minims, crotchets, &c. are subdivided by strokes drawn through their tails to make them abbreviated groups, to signify that they must be performed in the manner the first are marked.

Semibreve. A note of half the quantity of a breve, containing two minims, four crotchets, &c. The semibreve is accounted one

measure of time, or the integer in fractions and multiples, Music whereby the time of the other notes is expressed.

Semidiapason. A defective octave, or an octave diminished by a
minor semitone.

Semidiapente. A defective, false, or flat fifth.
Semidiatessaron. A defective fourth, properly called a false fourth.
Semiquaver. A note containing half the quantity of the quaver.
Semitone. Usually employed to denote a half tone, though it is
not, mathematically speaking, the half of a tone. Semitones
are moreover of three sorts, the greater, the lesser, and the
natural semitone. The use of semitones is to remedy the
defects of instruments, which, having their sounds fixed, cannot
always be made to answer the diatonic scale.

Senza. Without: as Senza stromenti, without instruments.
Sequence. A similar succession of chords ascending or descending
diatonically.

Seventh. A Musical interval consisting of three tones, two major semitones, and two minor semitones; at least such is the major seventh, but the minor seventh consists of one tone less. The seventh is composed diatonically of seven degrees and six intervals.

Sforzato. A term written over a note to signify that it is to be played louder than the rest.

Shake. A quick alternate repetition of the note above with that over which it is marked, and commonly ends with a turn from the note below.

Sharp. An artificial note or character thus, which prefixed to a note shows that it is to be sung or played a semitone or half note higher than the note would have been without it. Signature. The sharps or flats placed after the clef at the beginning of the stave which affect all the notes of the same letter throughout the movement. Those which alter the course of the movement in addition to the others being termed accidental, whereas the first mentioned are essential.

Sixth. One of the simple or original concords or harmonical intervals. It is of two kinds, greater and less, and therefore esteemed one of the imperfect concords, though each of them arises from a different division of the octave. The former is composed of six degrees and five intervals, in which four are tones and one a semitone. The lesser sixth is also composed of six degrees and five intervals, whereof three are tones and two semitones. Skip. The passing from one sound to another by more than a degree at one time.

Slide. A grace used by the German School, consisting of two small notes which move by degrees.

Slur.

An arch drawn over two or more notes upon different degrees, and signifies that all the notes are to be played as smoothly as possible. In vocal Music it is placed over or under all the notes that are to be sung to the same syllable. Smorzato. A term to denote that the bow of the violin is to be drawn to its full length, not with equal strength, but lighter and lighter on it by degrees till at last scarcely any sound is heard.

Soave, or Soavemente. To be played sweetly or agreeably. So feggio. The system in which the several notes of the scale are distinguished by the syllables ut, or do of the Italians, re, mi, fa, sol, la, whose office is, by applying them to every note of the scale, to obtain a pronunciation with ease, and also that by them the tones and semitones of the natural scale may be better distinguished. This is obtained by the four syllables mi, fa, sol, la. From fa to sol, and sol to la, and from la to ma, are each a semitone, without noticing the greater or less tone, but from la to fa and from mi to fa only a semitone. If these be applied in the following order, fa sol, la fa, sol la, mi fa, they express the natural series from C, and if repeated, a second or third octave; and we can by them express the whole of the different orders of tones and semitones in the diatonic scale, fa, sol, la, still standing above mi, and below it the same inverted la, sol, fa, and one mi is always distant from another an octave, which cannot occur with any of the rest, because in ascending after mi, fa, sol, la, fa always come in, which in descending are repeated inversely. The use of this system is this:-The first step in learning to sing is to raise a scale of notes by tones and the semitones in their natural places an octave, and descend again by the same, and then to ascend and descend by skips, as thirds, fourths, &c., and to do the same whatever be the pitch of the scale. Now these notes being represented by lines and spaces to which the above syllables are applied, and the learner taught to name each line and space thereby, is the system of Solfeggio. By it we learn to time the degrees and intervals of sound expressed by notes on a line or

space, or give words to Music to which none have been written by means of articulate sounds, but chiefly by an acquaintance with the degrees and intervals expressed by those syllables, we readily know the place of the semitones and the true distance of the notes.

Sollecito. Used to express that the piece is to be performed in a mournful manner. It also means with care and accuracy. Sopra. See Sotto.

Soprano clef. The C clef used for the voices of females and children. In Italy and Germany it is the clef in general use for the harpsichord; when placed on the first line it is called simply the soprano clef, but if it be placed on the second line it is called the mezzo soprano.

Sostenuto denotes that the sound is to be held on in an equal steady manner.

Sotto. Below, inferior, in contradistinction to Sopra above.

Space. The void between any two lines of the staff whereon a piece of Music is pricked or noted. In ancient Music three spaces and four lines only were used.

Spirito, or Spiritoso. To be played with vigour or spirit. Staccato denotes that the Music to which it is applied is to have every note divided or separated from the next in a plain and distinct manner.

Staff. The five lines on which, with the intermediate spaces, the noter of Music are written; said to have been introduced by Guido.

Stem. The notes of Music consist generally of two parts, the head and the stem; the former is either open or black, and must always be placed on a line or space, the stem is the line drawn from it either upwards or downwards at pleasure. Subdominant. The fifth below the key note, or fourth in ascending, being as it were the governing note, because it requires the tonic to be heard after it in the plagal cadence. Subito. Quick, hastily; thus Volti subito, an Italian phrase written at the bottom of a leaf, means turn the leaf quickly. Submediant, or middle note between the tonic and subdominant descending; it is the greater sixth in the major scale, and the Hesser sixth in the minor scale.

Subsemitone. A word used by the Germans for the leading note or sharp seventh of the scale.

Substitution, Chords of Names given to the two chords of the ninth major and minor.

Superdominant. The sixth of the key in the descending scale. Supertonic. The second above the key note. In theory, it is considered a variable sound, being a comma higher in the major scale than in its relative minor.

Supposed bass. That bass in which the root of the harmonic triad of the chord is not the lowest note; by others it is called the inversion of the accompanying chord.

Supposition. The use of two successive notes of equal value as to time, one of which being a discord supposes the other a concord. There are several kinds of supposition: first, when the parts proceed gradually from concord to discord, or on the contrary, from discord to concord, the intervening discord serving merely as a transition to the following concord.

Suspension. The holding on of a note.
Syncopation. A striking or breaking of the time whereby the dis-

tinctions of the several times or parts of the measure is interrupted. But it is more particularly used for the connection of the last note of a bar with the first of the following one, so as to make only one note of both; and it is also sometimes used in the middle of a measure, likewise when a note of one part ends or terminates in the middle of the note of another; this is, however, also called binding or ligature. Syncopation is also used for a driving note; that is, when some shorter note at the beginning of a measure, or half measure, is followed by two, three, or more longer notes before any other occurs equal to that which occasioned the driving note to make the number even, thus when an odd crotchet comes before two or three minims, or an odd quaver before two or more crotchets. Syncope. Signifies the division of a note; employed when two or

more notes of one part answer to a single note of one or the other, as when the semibreve of the one answers to two or three notes of the other.

System. A compound interval, or one composed or conceived to be composed of several less; thus the octave is a system. See Diastem,

Tablature. The use of letters of the alphabet, or any other characters, to express the sounds or notes of a composition. It is not usual in modern Music. In a stricter sense, it is the VOL. V.

method of writing Music for a particular instrument on paralle! lines each of which represents a string of the instrument. On these certain letters of the alphabet are placed, whereof A shows that the string is to be struck open, B that a finger is to be put upon the first stop, C on the second, D on the third, and so on through the octave.

Tucet. Signifies that the part to which it is prefixed is to be silent. Tardo. Slow, much the same time as largo.

Tasto. The touch of any instrument by means of which its notes are made to sound. The words Tasto solo are put to thorough basses, to denote that the instruments accompanying are merely to strike the single sounds from that place till they find figures again, or the word accords or accompaniments placed in their part which intimate that there the chords are to be begun. Temperament. The arrangement of the imperfect concords in instruments whose keys are fixed by transferring to them part of the beauty of the perfect, or in other words, by subdividing the redundant comma so as to distribute it over the scale. Tempo. Merely the Italian word for time. For Tempo d'imbroglio, see Imbroglio.

Tenor. The first mean or middle part, which is the ordinary compass of the human voice when neither raised to a treble nor depressed to a bass. It is denoted by the C clef on the fourth line.

Tenth. An interval consisting of nine degrees and five spaces. Tetrachord. In ancient Music, a concord consisting of three de

grees or intervals, and four terms or sounds, formerly called diatessaron. The octave has been considered as composed of two fourths which are disjoined or separated by a tone. Theory, however, does not allow the perfect mathematical equality of the fourths in respect to the places of the tones which compose them.

Thesis. The depression of the hand in beating time. Third. An imperfect concord resulting from a mixture of two sounds containing two degrees or intervals, and three terms or sounds. It is of two sorts, major and minor; the first is composed diatonically of three terms or sounds containing two degrees or intervals on fixed instruments, and the minor third is composed of three degrees, and contains a tone and a diatonic semitone between the extremes.

Time. The duration or continuity of a sound or note as to its proportion of a bar or measure.

Tone. A certain degree or interval of time whereby a sound may be raised or depressed from one extreme of a concord to another. Tones arise out of the simple concords and are equal to their differences.

Tonic. The key note, or chief sound, upon which all regular melodies depend and with which they all terminate. All its octaves above and below are called by the same name.

Transition. The breaking a greater note into a less to smooth the

roughness of a skip by a gradual passage to the following note. Transposition. The change of a melody into a higher or lower pitch. Any melody in a major scale may be transposed into any other major scale by altering the signature according to the pitch of the new key. The same may take place with melodies in minor keys. When, however, a melody originally major is performed in the relative minor key, it is called variation and not transposition.

Treble. The highest or acutest part of the human voice, usually sung by females or by children.

Tremando and Tremolo. To denote that several notes of the same degree or pitch of tune are to be executed with one draw of the bow so as to produce an effect of shaking.

Triad.

See Harmonic triad.

Triple. One of the kinds or measures of time, of which there are many species, but in all of them there is a division of the measures into three parts; as for instance, into three minims, three crotchets, three quavers, and so on. Three, or its multiples, being always the denominator of the fraction placed after the signature at the beginning of the staff.

Triplets. Groups of three notes each grouped by uniting the stems

at the bottom.

Tritonus, or Tritone. An interval consisting of three tones, or a

greater third and a tone major, which tone is divided into two semitones, one major the other minor. The tritone is a sort of redundant third, consisting of three tones, whence its name; or more properly of two tones and two semitones, one greater and one less, as from C to For E to B. It is not, in truth, as it is often erroneously called, a greater' or sharp fourth, because the fourth is a perfect interval, and has no majority nor minority, nor must it be confounded with the defective fifth, inas

5 H

much as the tritone only includes four degrees, whereas the defective fifth contains five, besides which, among the six semitones which compose the tritone chromatically, there are three greater and three less, whereas in the defective fifth there are two less and four greater semitones.

Tie. An arch drawn over two notes on the same degree. Tune. That property of sounds whereby they come under the relation of acute and grave towards each other.

Turn. A grace marked over a note which indicates that a note one degree higher is to be struck before it shortly, and passing quickly through the note itself, turn from the note a degree below into the note itself.

Tutti. As opposed to solo, in which only one part plays, means that all the parts are to play together.

Uncommon chord. The chord of the sixth, not so called because unusual or improper, but in contradistinction to the common

A. D.

1474. Tinctor Terminorum Musicæ Definitorium, Naples. 1480. Gafurius, (Franchinus,) Theoricum opus, 1480, 1492; Practica Mus. 1496, &c.; Harmonica, 1500.

1482. Ramis, (Bartholomeo de Pareia,) De Musicâ Tractatus,

Bononiæ.

1487. Burtius, (Nicolas,) Musices Opusculum, Bononiæ. 1503. Boetii Opera, B. L. fol. Paris.

1512. Wollicus, (N.,) Enchiridion Musices, Paris.

1516. Aron, (Pietro,) Institutio Harmonica, Bononiæ.

1529. Rossetti, (B.,) de Rudimentis Musices, &c. Verona.

1533. Vanneo, (Stephano,) Recanetum de Musica Aurea, Roma. 1547. Glareanus, (Hen. Lor.,) Dodecachordon, Basil. 1555. Thyard, (Ponce de,) Solitaire Second, ou Prose de la Musique, Lyons.

1557. Euclidis Rudimenta Musices Gr. et Lat. Parisiis. 1558. Zarlino, (Giuseppe,) Institutioni Harmonichi, Venet. fol.; also in 1562, 1573, 1589; Dimostrazioni, 1571, 1589. 1563. Sebastiani Bellum Musicale, Argent.

1571. Nicolaus, (Elias,) Orgeloder Instrument Tabulatur, Leipzig. 1577. Salinas, (Franciscus,) De Musica, fol.

1581. Galilei, (V.,) Dialogo della Musica, Fiorenze. 1582. Yssandron, (Jean,) Traité de Musique Pratique, Paris. 1596. Zacconi, (F. L.,) Prattica di Musica, Venet. fol. 1597. Morley, (Thomas,) Introduction to Music, 4to., Lond. 1604. Reinhard, (Andreas,) Musica, small 8vo. Lipsia. 1609. Ornithoparcus, (Andreas,) Micrologus, translated by Dowland.

1612. Viadana, (Ludovico,) Opus Musicum Sacrorum Concentuum. 1613. Cerone, (R. D. Pietro,) El Melopeo y Maestro, Napoles. 1627. Mersenne, (Martin,) under the name of De Sermes, Harmonie Universelle, 8vo.

1630. Bartoli, (P. D.,) Del Suono de' Tremori Armonici e dell' Udito, Bologna.

1631. Picerli, (Silverio,) Specchio Secondo di Musica, Nap. 1636. Butler, (Charles,) Principles of Music, small 4to. London. 1648. Doni, (Gio. Battista,) Annotazioni sopra il compendio, 4to. Roma.

1650. Kircher, (Athanasius,) Musurgia Universalis, fol. Roma. 1652. Meibomius, Antiquæ Musica Auctores, 2 vols. 4to. Amst. 1652. Matthai, (Conrad,) Bericht von den Modis Musicis, Kanisberg.

1656. Descartes, Musicæ Compendium, Amst.

1658. Gassendi Miscellanea Manuductio ad Theorem Mus., fol.

Lug.

1664. Alstedius, Templum Musicum, by Birchensha.

1665. Playford, (John,) Introduction to the Skill of Music, 8vo. 1666. Rossi, (Lemme,) Sistema Musico, 4to. Perugia. 1667. Simpson, (Christopher,) A Compendium of Practical Music,

8vo. London.

1668. Bononcini, (M.,) Musico Prattico.

1670. Mengoli, Speculationi di Musica, Bologna. 1672. Lorente, El Porque de la Musica, fol. Alcala.

1672. Salmon, (Thomas,) Essay to the Advancement of Music, Lond.

1676. Mace's Musick's Monument, fol.

1678. Smith's (Theod.) Musical Directory.

1682. Ptolomæi Harmonicorum, lib. iii. Gr. et Lat. 4to. Oxonii.

A. D.

1685. Scaletta, (H.,) Scala di Musica, fol. Roma.

1687. Berardi, (Ang. da S. Agatha,) Documenti Harmonici, 4to. Bologna.

1694. Holder, (Dr. William,) A Treatise on the Natural Grounds and Principles of Harmony, 8vo.

1695. Bontempi, (Gio. And. Arg.,) Historia Musica, fol. Perugia. 1696. Prinz, (W. C.,) Satyrischer Componist, 4to. Dresden 1698. Fokkerodt, (John Arnold,) Musikalischer Untemcht Mühlhausen, part ii. 1716, part iii. 1718.

1698. Loulie, Elemens ou Principes de Musique, Amst. 1701 Janowka, (Thos. Balthazar,) Clavis ad Thesaurum Magna Artis Musica, Alt. Prag.

1706. Tevo, (Zacharia,) Il Musico Testore, 4to. Venezia. 1708. Gasparini, (Francesco,) L'Armonico Prattico al Cimbalo, Ven 1710. Henfling, (Conrad,) Specimen de novo suo Systemate Mus, in the Berlin Miscellany, vol. i. part iii. p. 265—294, 4to. 1713. Mattheson, (John,) Orchestre der Vollkommene Kapellmeister, fol. Hamburg.

1721. Malcolm, (Alex.,) A Treatise on Music, 8vo. Edinburgh. 1722. Bonnani, (F.,) Gabinetto Armonico.

1722. Rameau, (Jean Phil.,) Traité de l'Harmonie, 4to. Paris. 1724. Turner, (William,) Sound Anatomized in a Philosophical

Essay on Musick, Lond.

1725. Fux, (John Joseph,) Gradus ad Parnassum, fol. Vienna. 1725, Chateauneuf, Dialogue sur la Musique des Anciens, 12mo. Paris.

1731. Pepusch, (John Christopher,) A Short Treatise on Harmony, oblong 8vo. Lond.

1732. Walther, (John,) Gottfried Musikalische Lexicon, Sro. Leipzig.

1735. Burette, (P. J.,) Dialogue de Plutarque, trad. du Grec, 4to. 1737. Lampe, (John Fred.,) Method of Teaching Thorough Bass, 4to. Lond.

1739. Euleri tentamen novæ Theoria Musica, 4to. Petrop 1740. Grassineau, (James,) A Musical Dictionary, 8vo. Londen. 1741. Le Beuf, (L'Abbé,) Traité Historique et Pratique sur le Chant Ecclésiastique, 8vo. Paris.

1742. Blanchini de Instrumentorum Musica Veterum, Rom. 1743. Bourdelot, Histoire de la Musique, 4 vols. Frankfort. 1746. Tansur, (Wm.,) Musical Grammar, Lond.

1749. Geminiani, (Francesco,) Treatise on Good Taste, fol. 1749. Smith, (Dr. R.) Harmonics, or Philosophy of Sounds, 8vo. London,

1752. D'Alembert, (Jean le Rond,) Elémens de Musique, Paris, Lyons, 1762.

1753. Avison, Essay on Musical Expression, 8vo. Lond. 1753. Bach, (Charles Philip Emanuel,) Versuch über die wahre Art das Clavier zu spielen, 1753, 1759, 1780. 1754. Bethisy, (M. de,) Exposition de la Théorie, &c. 8vo. Paras 1754. Riepel, (Joseph,) Anfangsgründe, &c. fol. Ratisbon. 1754. Tartini, (Giuseppe,) Trattato di Musica, 4to. Padua. 1755. Nichelman, (Christopher,) Die Melodie, 4to. Dantzig, 1755. Marpurg, (Fred. Wm.,) Handbuck bey dem General Bass, 1757, 1762.

1758. Adlung, (M. Jacob,) Anleitung au den Musikalischer Gelahr theit, 8vo. Erfurt; new edition, 1783, by Hüler. 1761. Antoniotto, (Giorgio,) L'Arte Armonica, fol. London.

1773. Sulzer, (John George,) Allgemeine Theorie der Schönen Kunste, large 8vo. 2 vols. Leipzig.

1774. Laags Clavier Spielen und General Bass, Osnabruck. 1774. Eximeno, (D. A.,) Dell Origine e delle Regole della Musica, 4to. Rom.

1774. Gerbert, (Martin,) De Cantu et Mus. Sacra, 4to. 2 vols.; Script. Ecclesiastici, 4to. 3 vols, Typ. San Blas. 1774. Kirnberger, (John Philip,) Die Kunste des Reinen satzes, 4to. Berlin.

1774. Martini, (Il Padre Giambattista,) Saggio di Contrappunto, &c. 2 vols. 4to. Bologna.

1776. Hawkins, (Sir John, Knight,) A General History of the Science and Practice of Music, 5 vols. 4to. Lond. 1776. Burney, (Charles, Mus. Doc. Oxf.,) A General History of Music, 4 vols. 4to. 1776 to 1789, London. 1776. Mercadier, (De Belesta,) Nouveau Système de Musique, 8vo. Paris.

1779. Vallotti, (Franc. Ant.,) Scienza Teorica e Pratica della Moderna Musica, 4to. Padova.

1780. Hiller, (J. A.,) Musikalische Richtigen Gesange, 4to. Leipzig.

1780. Borde, (M. de la,) Essai sur la Musique, 4 vols. 4to. Paris. 1781. Catalisano, (Genaro,) Grammatica Armonica, Roma. 1782. Petri, (John Samuel,) Anleitung zur Pratischen Musik, 4to. Leipzig.

1782. Maxwell, (Mr.,) Essay on Tune, 8vo. London.

1782. Pizzatti, (Giuseppe,) La Scienza dei Suoni, small 8vo. Venice. 1784. Jones, (Rev. Wm., of Nayland,) A Treatise on the Art of Music, Colchester.

A. D.

1784. Keeble, (John,) The Theory of Harmonics, 4to. London. 1789. Turk, (Dan Gottlieb,) Klavierschule, Leipzig. 1791. Framery, (Nicolas Etienne,) Encyclopédie Méthodique, 3 vols. Paris, 1791 to 1818.

1793. Frike, Guide in Harmony, oblong fol. Lond. 1794. Sala, (Nic.,) Regole del Contrapunto Pratico, fol. Napoli, 1795. Harrison, Universal Dictionary of Music. 1796. Gretry, Mémoires, ou Essai sur la Musique, 3 vols. 8vo. Paris. 1796. Kollman, (A. C. F.) Essay on Musical Harmony, fol. 1798. Requeno, (Vinc.,) Saggi sal Ristabilimento dell' Arte Armonica de Greci e Romani Cantori, Parma.

1799. Kollman, Essay on Musical Composition, fol. 1800. Shield, (William,) Introduction to Harmony, 4to. London. 1800. King, (M. P.) General Treatise on Music, particularly on Harmony or Thorough Bass, and its application in Composition, fol. Lond.

1801. Langle, (H. F. M.,) Nouvelle Méthode pour chiffrer les Accords, 8vo. Paris.

1802. Koch, (Hen. Christ.,) Musikalisches Lexicon, 2 vols. large 8vo. Frankfort.

1802. Kalkbrenner, Histoire de la Musique, 8vo. Paris. 1802. Sabbatini, (Quigi,) Trattato sopra le Fughe Musicali, 2 vols. 4to. Venezia.

1802. Catel, Treatise of Harmony.

1803. Gunn, (Mrs. Anne, late Miss Young,) Introduction to Music, 8vo. Edinburgh.

1806. Momigny, Cours complet d'Harmonie et de Composition, d'après une Théorie Nouvelle, 3 vols. 8vo. Paris. 1809. Choron, (M.,) Principes de Composition des Ecoles d'Italie, trad. de l'Italien de Sala et autres, 3 vols. 4to. Paris. 1809. Callcott, (Dr.,) Musical Dictionary, small 8vo. London. 1812. Crotch, Elements of Musical Composition.

1814. Choron, (M.,) Méthode Elémentaire de Composition, trad. de l'Allemand d'Albrechtsberger, 2 vols. 8vo. Paris.

1816-17. Berton, (H. Montan,) Traité d'Harmonie, suivi d'un Dictionnaire des Accords, 4 vols. 4to. Paris.

Engraving.

Definition of Engraving, and earliest Methods of the Art.

ENGRAVING is an Art allied to Sculpture as well as to Painting, but more especially to the latter, ever since the invention of multiplying impressions upon paper. In its ancient and more general sense, Engraving may be defined the representation of objects by means of incision on plates of metal, on planks or blocks of wood, The Art de on stones, gems, &c. Modern language gives the name more commonly to such lines and characters executed by incision upon wood or metal, as are intended to be communicated to paper in a printing-press; and applies to the impressions thus taken the term prints or Engravings. The same term is used for lithographic impressions, while those taken from wood are sometimes called wood-cuts.

fined.

Its antiquity.

Gem Engraving.

The word Engraving, however, is still used according to its primitive meaning, to denote certain branches of the Art which, from their utility, as well as from their hold upon the vanity of mankind, are never likely to be lost, and which have descended to us from the remotest antiquity, such as Gem Engraving, Seal Engraving, and Die Engraving.

(1.) As an introduction to the present subject, some notice may be expected to be taken of these antecedent and partly sculptural inventions. Their origin belongs to the earliest date of human civilization, and they doubtless led the way in contributing to suggest further discoveries; until, in fulness of time, that of Printing burst forth, meteor like, upon the world, and seemed to render every other light or key to knowledge dim, subordinate, and comparatively inoperative. We must content ourselves however with referring to the words CAMAIEU and INTAGLIO in our Miscellaneous Division; and with adding here only a few particulars as to the method by which the Gem Engraver proceeds, and the instruments with which he works. Whether, according to the opinion of Winkelmann, or of his ingenious contemporary Natter, (in a Treatise De la Méthode Antique de graver en Pierres fines comparée avec la Méthode Moderne, Lond. 1754. fol.) the tools of modern artists are similar to those used in ancient Art, may be still a question. But there can be no doubt that, in order to clear ideas on the subject of this or any other Art, some acquaintance with the mechanical means and implements employed is absolutely requisite.

(2.) After the stone or other material has been shaped and polished, the outline is drawn on the upper or convex side with a brass needle or with a diamond; and the underside is fastened by a cement of mastic to a wooden handle in such a manner as to be held with

* A convex surface is preferable, since it presents a deeper mass towards its centre, where the principal (and in the intaglio more prominent) objects are to appear. (See PAINTING, Art. 262. No. 2.) The process of shaping and polishing is the business of the lapidary; but the Gem Engraver must, we need scarcely observe, be competent not only to design, but also to model his subject perfectly, and with all its due proportions in clay or wax before commencing the operation above described.

780

ease in any direction, and applied with accuracy to the Earlies different tools for cutting it. The first of these which Methods we select for explanation is a cylindrical tube, (see plate i. fig. 1,) of which the sharpened extremity at A is used for describing circles and for perforating. The other extremity BC is a triangular prism made to be inserted horizontally into the axis of a revolving piece of steel, called a mill, which is kept in rotatory motion by means of a common lathe. Fig. 2 is another tool furnished at one end with a knob or round button, and having the other constructed like the last for insertion in the mill, and for revolving also on the same horizontal axis. The French name for this tool is boute rolle. By varying the form of the button at D, (fig. 2,) other tools are produced. In some the button takes a disk-like form, rounded at its edge. (Fig. 3.) In others the disk is square at its edge, (fig. 4,) and in others sharp. (Fig. 5.) To the latter instrument the French give the name scie. It resembles, in fact, a small circular saw.*

(3.) Fig. 6 gives an illustration of the manner in which the stone or gem is applied to the tool while the latter, previously dipt in a mixture of diamond-powder with olive-oil, is kept in revolution by the lathe. The larger tools are employed for the commencement, and the smaller for finishing. Care must be taken at all Seal Etimes in working seals or intaglios, not to place the graving, stone in such a direction against the tool that the upper portion of the excavated work may overhang in any the slightest degree the parts below intended to be prominent in the impression. No proper impression can, in such a case, (causing what Italians call sotto quadro,) be produced.†

(4.) For a description of the various materials upon which the Gem Engraver exercises his Art, we refer to MINERALOGY in the Second Division of this Work; and only remark here, that the stone called carnelian (sarda)

The size and form of these instruments are of course accom

modated by the artist to the several kinds of incision or excavation to be made. Sometimes the extremity D (fig. 2 to 5) is so small as to be scarcely distinguishable by the naked eye. When a tool of a different size or shape is required, the end B C (fig. 1) of the tool in use is drawn out from the mill, like the removable leg of a pair of compasses, and another instrument inserted in its place. Beckmann observes that the ancient Greek artists formed upon glass both raised and engraved figures, though it is probable that many pieces of glass may have been moulded like paste: for that Art also is of very great antiquity. He refers to two ancient glasses found at Nismes, and described by Caylus, in his Recueil d'Antiquités, ii. p. 363, as having figures and ornaments cut upon them. If, says he, we can believe that learned Engraver and Lapidary, the celebrated Natter, the Ancients employed the same kind of instruments for this purpose as the Moderns. They undoubtedly had, in like manner, the wheel which writers term a lapidary's wheel, and which moved round on a horizontal axis above the work-table. If this conjecture be true, he adds that it explains, very intelligibly, a passage in Pliny respecting the various ways of preparing glass. Aliud flatu figuratur, aliud TORNO teritur, aliud argenti modo cœlatur, lib. xxxvi. 26. p. 758.

When the work is completed, the Engraving is next polished, by being brought in contact with boxwood tools, kept in rotatory motion, like the others, by the mill, and dipped in emery or tripolipowder wetted, or in rotten stone. These polishing instruments are sometimes of pewter or of copper; and sometimes consist of hair brushes affixed to wheels, such as fig. 3 or 4, for the purpose.